Population

Ukrainians make up the majority of the population of Ukraine, numbering about 78 percent in 2014. There are a variety of other ethnic groups living there, including Russians, the largest minority group at 17 percent of the population. Other groups include Belarusians, Moldovans, Hungarians, Bulgarians, Jews, Poles, and Crimean Tartars. Native minority groups include the Boiky, the Hutsuly, and the Dolyniany, which are descended from ancient Slavic tribes.

[NOTE: All Ukrainian place names are given with their Ukrainian transliteration. Some may be more familiar in Russian: for example, Kyiv (Ukrainian) versus Kiev (Russian).]

Ukraine has a higher population of women to men, with 0.86 males to each female (2009 estimate). Some attribute that disparity to economic migration to other areas of Europe. The larger cities tend to be in the industrialized eastern portion of the country (a 2015 estimate from the CIA World Factbook states that nearly 70 percent of the population lives in urban areas), with the west of country largely rural in nature, although the city of L'viv is there, with a population of over 700,000.

Principal Cities by Population (2012):

Languages

While Ukrainian, a Slavic language, is the official language of Ukraine, Russian is also frequently used. A 2012 legislation enables a language spoken by at least 10 percent of an oblast's population to be given the status of “regional language,” allowing for its use in courts, schools, and other government institutions; Ukrainian remains the country's only official language nationwide.

Native People & Ethnic Groups

Modern Ukrainians are a white eastern European people of Slavic heritage. Like Russians and Belarusians, Ukrainians are known as Eastern Slavs.

There has been some debate over the origins of the Ukrainian people. One theory states that Ukrainians, Russians, and Belarusians are descended from a single group of ancient Slavic people called the Rus. However, Ukrainians have worked toward distinguishing themselves as a separate ethnic group from Russians and Belarusians. The Ukrainian language is distinct from Russian, and Ukrainian literature and culture are unique.

The region of Crimea, a peninsula within the Black Sea, in the south of the country, has a special status in the constitution. Russians make up the majority of Crimea's population, and most did not wish to remain part of Ukraine. In 1992, Crimea seceded from Ukraine and created its own constitution as an autonomous region within the country. Jews first settled in the region in the fourth century BCE, primarily in Crimea and along the coast near the Black Sea. Most of the country's Muslims also live in Crimea.

Religions

Ukraine is primarily a Christian country. Tradition asserts that the first Christians were baptized in Ukraine in 988. Religious groups faced persecution under Soviet rule, when many clerics were forced to flee the country or were imprisoned. Today, there are a number of Christian denominations in the country, including the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, the Ukrainian Greek Orthodox Church, and the Roman Catholic Church. Other religions practiced in Ukraine include Judaism and Islam.

Climate

Ukraine experiences a moderate climate that varies according to region. Typically, the south and west are warmer, while the north and east are cooler. The country has four seasons and an annual winter snowfall, although most precipitation occurs during summer. Ukraine receives over 48 centimeters (19 inches) of precipitation per year.

The country's mountain regions have a mountain climate, while areas in southern Crimea are Mediterranean. Summer temperatures average 18° to 20° Celsius (65° to 69° Fahrenheit); winter temperatures are regularly below freezing.

Topography

Ukraine is bordered by Belarus on the north and Russia on the north and east. The Black Sea forms a natural border in the south, with Moldova and Romania located to the southwest. Hungary, Slovakia, and Poland share boundaries with Ukraine in the west.

Ukraine consists primarily of four vegetative zones: forest, forest-steppe, steppe, and Mediterranean. There are vast plains and plateaus. Much of the land has an average elevation of around 300 meters above sea level. There are two major mountain ranges in the country: the Carpathian Mountains are located in the southwest, and the Crimean Mountains on the Crimean peninsula. The Crimean Riviera has a number of beaches and bays with tourist resorts.

The country's largest rivers are the Dnieper, Dniester, and the Boh. The Dnieper is the largest river in Ukraine, measuring 2,285 kilometers (1,419 miles) long. There are a few shallow lakes in the northwest and in south.

Ukraine is known for its many springs. There are healthful mineral springs throughout the country, as well as carbon dioxide springs in the Carpathians and Caucasus. Radioactive springs can be found on the shores of the Black Sea.

The capital, Kyiv, sits on the western and eastern banks of the Dnieper River in the lowlands of northern Ukraine, midway between the start of the Dnieper in northwest Russia and its mouth at the Black Sea.

Plants & Animals

Ukraine has over 16,000 species of plants in its various vegetation zones. The forests consist primarily of oak, beech, and hornbeam. Evergreen trees such as juniper, silver fir, and pine are common in the mountain regions. In addition to large expanses of pastureland, Ukraine also contains high mountain meadows. Plants like fig, olive, orange, and lemon trees grow in the country's Mediterranean zone.

There are over 28,000 animal species in Ukraine, although the country has few native species. Among the larger mammals are elk, lynx, brown bear, and white hare. Bird species such as the capercaillie, black grouse, and hazel hens are also common. Ukraine is home to several bat species, such as the lesser mouse-eared bat and the long-winged bat.

In 1986, the nuclear power plant in Chernobyl (in the north of the country) experienced a meltdown. This disaster contaminated nearby soil and vegetation with radiation, and the city itself was evacuated and relocated to Slavutych, a city developed to house the survivors of the Chernobyl disaster. Ukraine is still working to repair the environmental damage caused by the meltdown.

The Ukrainian government has also plans to expand nature preserves such as the Askania Nova state park.

Greetings

When meeting someone in Ukraine for the first time, it is appropriate to say “Vitayu” (“Hello”) and to offer a firm handshake with direct eye contact, while repeating one's name. Gloves should always be removed before shaking hands. Ukrainians, like Russians, often introduce themselves by their first name and their middle name, which is based on their father's first name. Close male friends may add a hug or a pat on the back. Women often greet friends, family and other women with a series of three alternating kisses on the cheek. Generally, greetings are never offered over the threshold of the entrance to a house or building, as this is considered bad luck. Such greetings and farewells should take place entirely inside or outside the doorway.

In corporate environments, when business associates meet for the first time, they generally introduce themselves with their full name (first, middle, and last), as well as any academic or professional titles they hold. Business cards are customarily exchanged, and foreign visitors should take the time to have cards printed in Ukrainian (or to obtain double-sided cards). After initial formalities are over, Ukrainian business etiquette tends to be more informal than in other countries.

Gestures & Etiquette

Typically, Ukrainians tend to be reserved in public. They refrain from loud conversation and frown on public displays of emotion or self-promotion. In addition, Ukrainians value simplicity and directness in conversation, which can sometimes be perceived as being impolite or rude. However, once a personal connection is made, Ukrainians are generally considered warm, welcoming and generous.

Traditional Western rules of etiquette are important in Ukraine. For example, men are expected to hold doors for women, assist them with heavy packages, and help them into and out of their overcoats. When riding public transportation, men and healthy young women should give up their seats for the elderly, disabled, and mothers with small children. In addition, speaking with crossed arms or with hands thrust into pockets is considered extremely rude, particularly in front of older people. Sitting with legs spread wide or with one crossed over the other is also generally considered inappropriate.

The most complex Ukrainian rules of etiquette address behavior at group dinners and celebrations. Guests should not begin eating until the host has welcomed everyone and formally started the meal. Ukrainians pride themselves on their generosity at the table, so it can be considered rude to refuse servings of food. Guests should also try to serve themselves a small portion of each dish offered.

Furthermore, the offering of toasts is an important part of Ukrainian social gatherings. It is customary for each adult or head of each household at the table to offer a toast, so guests should be prepared for their turn. The host of the party is responsible for making sure that everyone's glass is full. Empty bottles are often removed from the table immediately. In addition, bread is typically never thrown away, as it is an important religious and cultural symbol of life and prosperity.

Eating/Meals

Ukrainians typically eat three meals a day. Breakfast is commonly a light meal, usually consisting of bread or a cereal such as kasha (buckwheat). Often, breakfast is accompanied by tea. Lunch is eaten in the early afternoon, and is usually the main meal of the day. It is often served in two courses, including a soup (such as borscht) and a dish with meat or poultry (often leftovers from the previous dinner). The evening dinner is usually a family meal, and is most often prepared and eaten at home. Ukrainian families rarely eat out, due to the cost and the inconvenience of getting to and from restaurants, especially in the evening.

In rural areas, it is common for Ukrainian families to cultivate their own gardens and make pickles and preserves to be consumed during the winter. In addition, many Ukrainian houses have an unheated basement, shed or cottage that serves as a walk-in cooler when the weather gets colder. Food is brought inside to the table for dinner and afterward, leftovers are simply carried back to the cooler.

Generally, Ukrainians use utensils in the continental manner, which constitutes holding the knife in the right hand while using the fork in the left (not switching hands to bring food to the mouth). Hands are always kept on the table, with wrists (not elbows) resting on the table edge.

Visiting

When visiting someone's home for the first time, it is customary to bring a small gift. These may include chocolates, a bottle of vodka, or a small souvenir from the guest's hometown. Flowers are also welcome, but only in odd numbers (even numbers are for funerals). Carnations and yellow blooms should be avoided, as the former are used for funerals and the latter are associated with false intentions. Gifts are generally opened after the guests have departed, and not immediately after they are received. In many homes, visitors are asked to remove their shoes in the entryway. They also may be temporary provided with slippers to wear during their stay.

After dinner, it is common for the hosts to bring out photo albums and share memories of family members or recent holidays and trips. Popular social activities may also include chess, which is almost as popular as football (soccer) in Ukraine, and singing. Ukrainians love to sing, and some households may even own karaoke machines. Generally, most evenings end relatively early, so that guests can make their way safely home before it gets too late.

Family

Traditionally, domestic life Ukraine was built around large extended families living together in one village, and often under one roof. Although this structure still exists in some rural areas (especially in the west), today most Ukrainian households are based on the single family unit. However, in most families, elderly parents live with the child that will inherit their property. Often, they help in the raising of children and in maintaining the house.

The poor economic conditions of the late Soviet and post-independence eras have forced many young couples to live with their parents, often in cramped quarters. These pressures have contributed to high rates of divorce and low birth rates. In addition, many younger Ukrainians are also seeking educational and career opportunities abroad. These factors have led to an overall decline in the Ukrainian population in the late-20th and early-21st centuries, and have altered the traditional family structure in many households.

Housing

In major cities, most inhabitants live in large Soviet-era apartment blocks, which are generally solid in construction, but vary widely in terms of appearance and cleanliness. Apartment tenants sometimes divide long hallways into smaller sections in order to create more private spaces.

Most Ukrainians prefer to live in single-family houses. A typical Ukrainian home is walled and gated, often with a private yard and a garden. Older houses are typically one story structures, constructed from stone or stucco. Cold winters and seeping moisture during the spring thaw make upkeep difficult, so the exteriors often appear weathered and run-down. Some newer homes are constructed with modern materials, including plastics and composites. Wealthier Ukrainians tend to build robust, multi-story homes out of stone or concrete, decorated with ornate detailing or metalwork.

In addition, many Ukrainians, especially city dwellers, own summer cottages in the country, called dachas. Often, these are little more than one-room sheds on tiny plots of land. Nevertheless, they provide a welcome escape from cramped city living and a place to cultivate gardens and enjoy the outdoors.

Food

Generally, Ukrainian cuisine is similar to Russian and Polish cuisine, with Turkish and German influences. Due to the country's rich soil and productive farmland, a wide range of local produce and meats is typically available as ingredients. For these reasons, Ukraine was once referred to as the “breadbasket” of the Soviet Union.

Bread is the most important part of the Ukrainian diet. It serves not only as a staple, but also has deep religious and cultural significance. In addition to the dense rye bread used for daily consumption, Ukrainians prepare specialty breads for nearly every holiday or celebration. Kolach is a braided bread served with Sunday meals and on family holidays. Korovai, lezhen and dyven are prepared for weddings to represent different aspects of marriage. Paska, a cake-like bread filled with nuts and dried fruits, is ritually prepared once a year for Easter.

Pork is another Ukrainian favorite, and pork fat is a commonly used ingredient. In addition to being used for cooking, pork fat is also fried or smoked and eaten by itself. Kovbasa sausage, in particular, is popular (it is better known in the West by its Polish name, kielbasa). Every region and household has its own signature recipes for varenyky dumplings, made from dough stuffed with potatoes, mushrooms, meat, vegetables or fruits. Ukrainians also make their own version of borscht, the Russian beet soup. The Ukrainian version is sweeter, richer, and usually pinker in color. The Ukrainian version also contains more beets and meat, with less cabbage as filler. In the summer, Ukrainians enjoy outdoor grilling, especially shashlik – lamb kabobs served on skewers and marinated with Mediterranean flavors.

Life's Milestones

Over time, many ancient Ukrainian rituals have simply been absorbed into Christian celebrations and traditions. In addition, many practices, which were discouraged under Soviet rule, are being rediscovered and adapted for modern times.

One important tradition is the selection of godparents (kumy) to watch over the child. The kumy play a key role in the postryzhennya, the child's first haircut, which takes place several months after the birth. In addition, a child's birth is a time of feasting and celebration.

Modern weddings are set in motion when the groom-to-be brings his family and friends to ask his future bride's parents for her hand in marriage. A few months after consent is granted, the couple is often married in a civil ceremony while standing together on an embroidered cloth. They then proceed to a church ceremony, where the union is blessed by a priest. Afterwards, the wedding party typically celebrates the union at a boisterous reception, featuring feasting, toasts, dancing and practical jokes. Instead of (or in addition to) a wedding cake, Ukrainian weddings feature a korovai, a special bread prepared with flour contributed by both families.

Ukrainian funerals are often repeated nine days after the person's death, again after forty days, and then annually. Many Ukrainians also observe Zeleni sviata, a festival of remembrance which takes place fifty days after Easter. In addition, when visiting a grave, it is a common custom for Ukrainians to bring vodka or other spirits as well as some of the departed's favorite foods. They will often place a portion of food and drink on the gravestone, and share the rest amongst themselves while reminiscing about their lost loved one.

Art

Ukraine's history dates back to circa 4500 BCE. Since that time, the area has experienced dozens of major and minor migrations and invasions from Europe, Asia and the Middle East. This pattern continued into the modern era. Foreign domination in Ukraine ended with a declaration of independence in 1991 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Consequently, Ukrainian culture reflects a wide range of influences, based on language and heritage as opposed to ethnicity.

The modern Ukrainian nation traces its roots to the medieval state of Kyivan Rus'. This Slavic kingdom, founded in the ninth century, encompassed present-day northern Ukraine, Belarus and Western Russia. Eastern Christianity became the official religion of the kingdom in the 10th century under the reign of Vladimir I (c. 958–1015). This period of Christianization also witnessed the cultural influence of the Byzantine Empire, one of the most culturally and commercially dominant empires in European history. After the decline of Kyivan Rus' in the 13th century, much of Ukraine came under Polish rule. This period saw the rise of the Cossacks, tribe-like martial societies existing almost as independent states within Ukraine's borders. Cossack culture would become largely influential in providing the basis of much of Ukraine's modern national identity.

In the 18th century, Ukraine was largely dominated by Russia. As a result, Ukrainian culture was suppressed by the Russian tsars, or emperors. However, Russian culture of the time was strongly influenced by Ukrainians, as many of the Russian Empire's leading composers, artists and thinkers were Ukrainian. The Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 transformed the Russian Empire into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or Soviet Union, the world's first communist state. During the period of Soviet control, Ukrainian traditions were occasionally used to promote pro-Soviet propaganda. However, for the most part, Ukrainian cultural traditions were suppressed by the Soviet state, especially during a series of genocidal purges and forced relocations during the 1930s.

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 led to a resurgence in Ukrainian language and nationalism. After the peaceful Orange Revolution of 2004 swept away a pro-Russian government, the Ukrainian people were free to fully express their unique cultural heritage. Yet, Ukrainians had similar concerns after the pro-Russian Viktor Yanukovych was elected president in 2010. Protests were triggered in 2013 by Yanukovych's decision not to sign an association agreement with the European Union, because of pressure from Russia. By 2014, protesters insisted on Yanukovych's removal. His security forces withdrew from the city center, and Yanukovych soon fled the capital, eventually going into exile in Russia. After Yanukovych left, Russia—which strongly opposed the protests and ties between Ukraine and Europe—invaded the country. Using a combination of Russian troops (from its naval base in Sevastopol), Special Forces, Cossacks, and local separatists, the Kremlin quickly captured the Crimean Peninsula and annexed it to the Russian Federation in mid-March.

Architecture

Ukraine's architectural tradition begins with the introduction of the Byzantine style after the country adopted Eastern Christianity in the 10th century. Byzantine architecture was largely a continuation of Roman architecture. One particular feature of Byzantine architecture is the use of domes, as well as mosaics and vaults. The Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev and the nearby Holy Trinity Church provide examples of this style, while Romanesque half-columns and simple arches appear in later churches. Gothic architecture is rare, due in part to the constant warfare of this period (roughly the 12th to 16th centuries), which made it difficult to invest decades in building such complex structures.

During the late Renaissance, the Cossack aristocracy, led by the 17th century leader Ivan Mazepa (1639–1709), adopted grand, ornate Baroque forms and added Byzantine elements. This style, which is called Ukrainian Baroque (or Cossack Baroque) is simpler and less decorative than the Western European version. Baroque style, which developed during the 17th and 18th centuries, is characterized by harmony in both visual and spatial relationships. Examples can be found throughout Ukraine, such as the St. George Cathedral at Vydubychi. In addition, many overseas Ukrainian communities have built churches in this style, reflecting its prominent place in Ukraine's cultural identity.

Unfortunately, much of Ukraine's architectural heritage has been lost. Many structures were destroyed during World War II. Furthermore, throughout the Soviet era, official government atheism led to the neglect or misuse of churches. Some architectural treasures have even been the victims of social progress or modernization, as local citizens seek to modernize their communities.

Drama

Ukraine enjoys a rich theatrical past, ranging from one-act folk dramas to private plays enacted in 19^th-century estates by travelling dramatists. Two theatrical traditions developed, an urban theater tradition featuring Russian and Ukrainian productions in the Russian language, and a more amateur, rural tradition in the Ukrainian language, which was banned in the mid-19th century. These Ukrainian-language productions were largely the work of travelling troupes of actors based in western Ukraine; the Ukrainska Besida Theater was a popular troupe in the late-19th and early 20th century. At the same time, cities under Russian control were extremely limited in their choice of production, with social and historical themes forbidden under censorship laws.

These censorship restrictions lightened somewhat in the early 20th century, and a more creative and progressive theater scene developed after 1917. The development of the Berezil Theatre by Les Kurbas (1887–1937) in 1922 ushered in a new era of theater, with more avant-garde themes and productions, and providing a venue for the production of Ukrainian plays by native writers, particularly Mykola Kulish (1892–1937). Kulish wrote several plays that met the fate of the censors when put into production. Censors were carefully tailoring literature and drama to confirm with the Soviet Party message, and many of Kulish's plays were revised. Kulish began his career by writing about the post-Soviet life in Ukraine, but turned to comedies in the late 1920s. In 1933, he was removed and later arrested, and most of his manuscripts were taken by authorities and destroyed.

Meanwhile, in western Ukraine, a Theater of the Western Ukrainian National Republic was established. It was short-lived, as all theaters eventually came under the control of the Soviet Union, which established national theaters and enacted a policy in all the arts centered on “socialist realism.” Socialist realism required that writers depict the Soviet “reality,” but really became a vehicle for authorities to re-educate citizens about how good their lives really were—in spite of what they really thought—and glorified the new order and bureaucracies created in this new social structure.

It wasn't until the 1990s that the Ukrainian theater began to rise once again. In the early 21st century, the Ukrainian theater scene is alive and well, boasting more than 100 theatres that include the National Opera of Ukraine, the National Academic Drama Theater of I. Franko, and the National Academic Theater of Russian Drama of Lesya Ukrainka.

Music

Traditional Ukrainian music is an essential element of the nation's culture, reflecting both the hardships and the joys of rural life. Ukrainian folk music is largely based on minor keys, which have different harmonies and sounds than music based on major keys. Often, music based on minor keys is described as sad or melancholy. Ukrainian folk music is typically performed on a plucked or strummed stringed instrument, including traditional instruments such as the four-stringed kobza and the bandura, both similar to the lute.

In addition, Ukrainian folk songs often feature colorful or melancholy vocals. This style traces its roots to the wandering kobzars of the Cossack era, who sang and performed epic songs on the kobza. Similarly, bandurists performed their music on banduras. Kobzars, bandurists and other folk musicians were persecuted throughout Ukrainian history, particularly during Polish rule and under the rule of the Russian tsars.

During the Soviet era, the Communist Party suppressed Ukrainian music. However, it was sometimes used for political purposes, such as to promote ties between Ukrainian peasants and Russian workers. Despite this repression, Ukrainian composers and performers continued to create music reflecting their musical heritage, often in exile. One of the most renowned Ukrainian composers during this period was Mykola Lysenko (1842–1912). Lysenko was a strong promoter of Ukrainian folk music and the founder of the Ukrainian national school of music.

Independence in 1991 led to a resurgence in Ukrainian language and culture, including the adoption of a traditional 19th century hymn, “Shche ne vmerla Ukrainy” (“Ukraine's [glory] has not perished”), as the national anthem. However, Russian language music continued to receive official preference until the peaceful Orange Revolution of 2004. Ukrainian musicians played an important role in these protests, entertaining and inspiring the crowds who had gathered outside in freezing temperatures. The unofficial anthem of the movement, “Razom Nas Bahato” (“Together We Are Many”), combined traditional tones with elements of rock and hip-hop music. This is a reflection of modern Ukrainian music in general, which draws from a wide range of influences, but maintains strong ties to tradition.

Literature

Ukrainian literature, as with most Slavic languages, has its roots in works written in Church Slavonic during the period of Kyivan Rus.' The 16th century witnessed the rise of folk epics depicting the stories of Cossack adventures. This in turn led to Ivan Kotlyarevsky's (1768–1838) satirical version of Virgil's Aeneid in the late 18th century, the first major work to be written in the Ukrainian vernacular (spoken style).

The most important figure in Ukrainian literature is the 19th century poet Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861). In works such as Kobzar (1840), a collection of poems, and Zapovit (Testament), Shevchenko highlighted Cossack and agrarian village life while criticizing the imperial rule of Tsarist Russia. Through his work, Shevchenko not only established modern Ukrainian literature, he also laid the foundation for the modern written Ukrainian language. His work helped develop the Ukrainian sense of national identity, and its influence continues to be felt throughout Ukrainian society. Kyiv's National University bears his name, and monuments in his honor can be found throughout the country, as well as Ukrainian communities around the world.

During the Soviet era, many Ukrainian writers chose to live in exile, rather than submit to Soviet censorship and repression. Bohdan Krawciw (1904–1975), Evhen Malaniuk (1897–1968) and Teodosii Osmachka (1895–1962), who avoided execution by pretending to be insane, were among those who explored Ukrainian themes and nationalism from abroad. Those who remained in Ukraine and continued to express themselves, often paid for their defiance with imprisonment or death, as in the case of poet Vasyl' Stus (1938–1985), who perished in a forced labor camp. After independence, Ukrainian literature has gradually experienced a renaissance. Ukrainians are now free to explore literature from throughout their history and to add to this heritage.

Arts & Entertainment

Favorite sports in Ukraine include soccer, volleyball, basketball, and ping-pong. Ukrainians also enjoy chess. Hiking and mountaineering remain popular outdoor activities. Ukrainian athletes have been successful participants in the Olympic Games, particularly in events such as gymnastics and figure skating.

The dominant trend in contemporary Ukrainian art is a movement to embrace Ukrainian traditions and to shift from the Russian-dominated influences of past centuries. This movement is reflected in the widespread use of blue and yellow (the national colors) on official government graphic design, artwork and architecture – even buses. Red (associated with Russia) is notably underutilized.

Many previously unknown or underappreciated Ukrainian artists are now recognized as leaders in their fields, such as Anatol Petritsky (1895–1964), known for his graphic arts and set design; avant-garde artist Vasili Yermilov (1894–1967), who helped popularize constructivism in art in the 1920s (constructivism artists focus on concrete or practical links or uses in art); and painter Alexander Bogomazov (1880–1930), who incorporated cubism and futurist interests in his work.

However, despite the government's public promotion of Ukrainian arts and its support of key national institutions, it provides little direct funding to the arts community in Ukraine. This is largely due to its focus on other political and economic priorities. The government does provide some incentives, such as low-rent studios and other working spaces, and tax breaks for companies that donate profits to the national film industry. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) also fill this gap to a certain extent. Many of these groups survive on support from foreign foundations and corporate sponsorship.

However, government efforts to encourage Ukrainian culture at the expense of Russian culture have led to unintended consequences. For example, a law passed in 2007 required that all foreign films be dubbed into Ukrainian, instead of Russian. This led not only to legal challenges, but to a decline in box office revenues, partly due to a lack of facilities for creating Ukrainian-dubbed versions. Furthermore, it alienated Ukraine's leading director, Kira Muratova, who produces her films in Russian, often in partnership with Russian studios. Issues such as this illustrate the unforeseen challenges Ukraine faces in promoting its national arts.

Cultural Sites & Landmarks

With its rich history and wide range of cultural influences, Ukraine offers a wealth of cultural sites and landmarks. These include five sites designated as World Heritage Sites by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). In addition, in July 2007, the Ukrainian people voted on the “Seven Wonders of Ukraine.” The contest, conducted in two parts, allowed Internet users and experts residing in Ukraine to vote on the sites that highlighted important aspects of Ukrainian culture and history. Internet users voted on twenty-one candidate sites as narrowed down by an expert council.

The two highest ranked sites in the contest were Sofiyivsky Park in central Ukraine and Kiev Pechersk Lavra, or Kiev Monastery of the Caves. The national park in Sofiyivka, created by a Polish noble for his wife, provides a peaceful sprawl of landscaped gardens and marble classical statues. The nearby Pechersk Lavra Monastery was founded shortly afterward, growing from hillside caves occupied by a pair of monks into a major religious center.

Following these two sites are the island of Khortystsya and the impressive fortress of Kam'yanets-Podilsky. Khortystsya, or the Great Khortystsya Island, is on the Dnipro River and shows evidence of human settlements dating back to 30,000 BCE. It was also an important center of Cossack society between the 16th and 18th centuries. The fortress of Kam'yanets-Podilsky, overlooking the River Smotrych, preserves the essence of a fortified 14th century medieval town. Another fortress, at Khotyn, was an important crossroads between East and West during the Middle Ages. It was also the site of a historical battle in 1691, in which the Cossacks prevented the Turks from invading Western Europe.

Rounding out the “Seven Wonders of Ukraine” are the ruins at Chersonesus and the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev. The ancient Greek ruins at Chersonesus, in the Crimea, an autonomous republic of Ukraine, date from the sixth century BCE. The Saint Sophia Cathedral—which derives its name from the famous Hagia Sophia cathedral in Istanbul, Turkey—was built early in the 11th century CE, shortly after the adoption of Christianity. Its towering gold-tipped minarets (spires) and rich collection of mosaics and frescoes are a magnificent example of Byzantine architecture.

Of these seven locations, the Saint Sophia Cathedral and Pechersk Lavra Monastery are also listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Other UNESCO sites include the historical center of the city of Lviv, called Old Town, and the ancient Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians, which Ukraine shares with Slovakia. Ukraine also hosts a section of the Struve Geodetic Arc, a system of 19th-century survey stations that helped scientifically measure the actual shape and size of the earth. The chain was designated as a World Heritage Site in 2005.

In the summer months, many Ukrainians and tourists head for the Crimean peninsula on the Black Sea. Privileged members of the Communist Party had their vacation homes there during the Soviet era. The resort town of Yalta, on the south of peninsula, is famous as the site of a key meeting between United States President Franklin Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet Premier Josef Stalin near the end of the Second World War. The week-long meeting, known as the Yalta Conference, was the second of three meetings in which the order of Europe following World War II and the surrender of Germany was prioritized and established.

In addition, sites dedicated to World War II can be found throughout Ukraine. These include the vast Museum of the Patriotic War in Kyiv to smaller monuments erected in the centers of most cities and towns. One unusual example is the memorial to the men of FC Start – a Kyiv football (soccer) club who defied the Nazi invaders by refusing to deliberately lose a match to a German team. They won their last game, and most were sent to concentration camps to perish. However, their courage became a symbol of resistance to oppression – an important theme for the Ukrainian people.

Libraries & Museum

Ukraine's National Art Museum has emerged as the centerpiece of Ukrainian cultural history. Founded in 1898 as the Kyiv City Museum of Antiquities and Art, the museum initially housed examples of Ukrainian art, ranging from medieval religious icons to Cossack portraits to the paintings of the multi-talented national poet Taras Shevchenko. The museum's history parallels the overall experience of Ukrainian arts over the last century, as well as its post-independence re-emergence. It reflects key themes: exploration of Ukrainian national identity, repression under Russian and Soviet rule, defiance through underground activity and work in exile, and finally, homecoming and triumphant re-emergence.

Holidays

Christian holidays are very important in Ukrainian culture, including Christmas Eve, Lent, and Holy Week. During the Easter season, special masses are celebrated and Easter eggs, or “pysanky,” are painted with intricate designs. Ukrainian Independence Day is commemorated on August 24.

Youth Culture

Like much of modern Ukrainian society, the nation's youth culture is moving away from Russian trends toward native Ukrainian influences and those imported from the West. For example, on a typical week, the Ukrainian top 40 pop charts may include equal parts Russian/Ukrainian groups and American artists, with a scattering of other European or international artists. Western movie imports are popular, although Ukrainian tastes can be somewhat unusual.

While Western fashions are growing increasingly popular, one fashion trend involves the wearing of sports jerseys, mostly from Ukrainian and other European club teams, but National Basketball Association (NBA) teams as well. Also, young women commonly strive to emulate the glamorous style of their older sisters and mothers from an early age. Lastly, many of the current generation of Ukrainian youth are looking outside their country for career opportunities. Ambitious young Ukrainians are learning English, which they see as a valuable tool for their future, instead of Russian, which is tied to the Soviet past. This phenomenon has contributed to Ukraine's overall decline in population.

Transportation

Ukraine's transportation system fell into neglect after the collapse of the Soviet Union. However, the government is gradually making improvements, particularly in and around the major cities. Traveling around the rest of rural Ukraine can be difficult, particularly during the winter months.

For in-town transportation, the larger cities provide subway or trolley service. Outside the city centers, and in most smaller cities and towns, Ukrainians rely on small marshutka buses, or minivans, to get around. Taxis are available, but generally expensive. In rural villages, cars are rare and public transportation services are usually non-existent. Often, horse-drawn carts are still being used. For the average Ukrainian, these challenges often make running even simple errands into a day-long chore.

Cars in Ukraine travel on the right-hand side of the road. The steering wheel is on the left-hand side of the vehicle and seat belt use is required by law.

Transportation Infrastructure

Most of the larger cities are served by trains, which are fairly reliable, though many buses and facilities are over forty years old. Buses reach most of the rest of the country, as well, although roads are poorly maintained in many areas. Automobile travel in Ukraine can be dangerous due to the unkempt roads and low driving standards. In addition, air travel within Ukraine is limited, since many regional airports are closed or reduced to handling only a few regular flights.

Media & Communications

The transition from state-controlled media toward a free and open media market is one area in which Ukraine has made significant progress in recent years. As of 2006, the country listed over 1,200 radio and television outlets and roughly 25,000 newspapers and magazines. Of these, only about 4 percent were owned by the government. Actual censorship is rare, and the government does not restrict access to international news or entertainment sources. As of 2009, there were 7.77 million Internet users. Wireless service is available in and around most cities. Another recent trend is the government's promotion of Ukrainian language media. This effort reflects a desire to distance the country from Russian influence and to move closer to the West.

However, Ukraine still faces challenges in establishing a truly open media. The government continues to use the media as a tool to influence the public. Paid political messages and editorials are often misrepresented as actual news items, and journalists are still subject to intimidation and violence. Also, although government officials are legally required to provide access to information, they are rarely held accountable for failing to do so. Another issue is copyright infringement. Piracy of both locally and internationally produced material has been widespread.

Standard of Living

Ukraine ranked 83 in a field of 187 countries in the 2013 United Nations Human Development Index.

Water Consumption

According to the CIA World Factbook, as of 2012, 98.1 percent of Ukraine's population has access to improved water drinking water sources and 96.5 percent have access to improved sanitation. Ukraine is dealing with a number of infrastructure issues related to its history as a Soviet bloc country. Water in some areas, particularly the Dnipro Basin, suffers from untreated sewage, industrial waste, radiation (from Chernobyl), and agricultural runoff and animal waste. In the early 21st century, a strategic program was implemented to clean up the water resources in that area, address sustainable development, and implement a resource management program.

Education

The educational system in Ukraine consists of primary, secondary, and vocational education. Basic primary and secondary education takes approximately twelve years to complete. Ukraine's Ministry of Education emphasizes civic and cultural values in education. Citizens have the right to pursue learning to the level they choose and women usually experience fifteen years of education, while men pursue fourteen years, on average.

There are over 27,000 schools in the country, which also has 149 universities, colleges, and post-graduate institutions. Ukraine's universities include Bila Cerkva State Agrarian University, Chernivci State University, East Ukrainian State University, and the Odessa State Maritime Academy. The literacy rate in Ukraine is nearly 100 percent.

Typically, Ukrainian public schools are co-educational; however, most elite private schools support single-sex education. The country is seeing an increasing number of private secondary schools. Private schools tend to emphasize Ukrainian culture, aesthetics, and folklore more than public schools do. Public schools are more likely than private to have inadequate textbooks and outdated curricula.

Women's Rights

Before Soviet rule, Ukrainian women traditionally held a prominent place in their social structure and had greater rights and freedoms, especially when compared to other male-dominated societies. Mothers, sisters and wives were given high status. In some regions, Ukrainian women even took the lead in pursuing marriage, and it was common for inheritances to be equally divided without regard to gender. Although men were the primary providers, women were responsible for running the household.

The role and status of women changed during the Soviet era. As part of the communist system and philosophy, Ukrainian women were encouraged to contribute to the economy by working. Soviet propaganda emphasized the equality of the sexes, and promoted the image of the women and men working side by side in the fields and factories. However, women faced significant discrimination in the workplace. Even highly educated women were directed toward “technical” fields such as education and medicine, and were excluded from careers requiring management and leadership skills. In addition, women were not only expected to work, but to take responsibility for caring for the children and maintaining the home. These trends have carried over into the post-Soviet era. Women continue to be excluded from higher paying jobs and management positions. In general, they receive less pay then men for the same type of work. In addition, the vast majority of unemployed are women. As a result, many women seek opportunities outside Ukraine and become victims of human trafficking for forced labor or sex work.

Domestic violence is also common. Legally, divorce can be initiated by either spouse, and assets are supposed to be divided equally. In reality, women suffer financially through divorce, although they are more often awarded custody of children. Furthermore, abuse and divorce are over twice as common in the eastern areas of the country. The western regions, which are more distant from Russian influence, have maintained stronger ties to traditional roles and attitudes. For example, men are more likely to assist in maintaining the home and raising children.

Ukraine's recent moves to embrace its traditions suggest that the situation of women may improve. Entrepreneurial women are establishing their own successful businesses, and in some cases supporting their households. The elevation of Yulia Timoschenko, a widely popular politician, to the post of prime minister in 2007 (she served until 2010) illustrated the willingness of the Ukrainian people to once more embrace female leadership.

Health Care

Health care is a social service provided by the Ukrainian government. State and local budgets provide most of the funding for health services. However, the quality of the health care system in Ukraine is inconsistent, even though the country has many hospitals and medical clinics and a high doctor-patient ratio. The best medical care is found in urban areas.

The Ukrainian government is attempting to improve the health care system, and to guarantee fairness and equality in health care distribution. One strategy is to train more primary care and family practice physicians and health care providers.

Ukraine faces several public health issues related to poor health, evident by the high infant mortality rate (almost 9 deaths per 1,000 live births) and the low life expectancy, particularly for men, which is nearly 67 years as compared to women, at seventy-six years. Experts attribute the low life expectancy for men to the high number of smokers, as well as widespread alcohol abuse. Poverty and environmental pollution also play a large role in general poor health.

Structure

In December 1992, a referendum was held in which the Ukrainian people voted overwhelmingly in support of national independence. While subsequent elections in Ukraine have taken place successfully, there have been instances of illegal activity, such as coercion of voters, candidates and abuse of absentee ballots. Most glaring among these was the 2004 assassination attempt on the life of then-candidate Viktor Yushchenko. He survived poisoning and became the country's president.

Ukraine is a parliamentary democracy. The president is the chief of state and has the power to nominate the prime minister, who heads the parliament. Ukraine's parliament is known as the Supreme Rada; it has 450 elected members who serve four-year terms. Suffrage in Ukraine is universal at 18 years of age.

The country's constitution, which was created in 1996, guarantees freedom of speech, religion, and the press. However, the state has been known to try to control media outlets through intimidation. While the constitution does not deny rights to ethnic minorities, it prioritizes the social and political development of the Ukrainian culture.

Political Parties

In 2009, more than 150 political parties were registered with the Ukrainian Ministry of Justice. This large number of political parties forces them to form coalitions with other political parties in order to gain or exercise power. Further, these alliances have a tendency to shift in terms of political platform and some have characterized political alliances in Ukraine as largely personality driven, rather than platform driven.

In the 2014 elections, the People's Front party (NF) took 22.1 percent of the vote and 82 seats, while Petro Poroshenko Bloc (BBP) took 21.8 percent of the vote and 132 seats. Samopomich took 11 percent of the vote and 33 seats; the Opposition Bloc (OB) took 9.4 percent and 29 seats, and Radical took 7.4 percent and 22 seats. Other parties represented in the 2014 election include Batkivshchnya (“Fatherland”), Svoboda (“Freedom”) and the Communist Party of Ukraine (CPU).

Local Government

Kyiv is the administrative center of the Kyiv Oblast, one of twenty-four oblasts, or provinces, in Ukraine. The Kyiv Oblast has an area of 28,400 square kilometers (10,965 square miles) and encompasses 25 districts and 25. Kyiv is a self-governing municipality, so it is not under the jurisdiction of the oblast governing body.

Municipalities within Ukraine are administered by a council and an executive committee, at the oblast level, councils are representative and work with local administrators which are appointed by the president and the Cabinet of Ministers, to whom they are accountable.

Judicial System

Local courts within Ukraine handle criminal and civil issues. Appeals courts are next in the hierarchy, handling appeals. High courts, one for administrative matters and another for economic and commercial issues, follow. The Supreme Court is the highest court in the country.

The court system in Ukraine does not enjoy public support or confidence, and are not considered particularly independent; between 2005 and 2008, courts averaged a 99.5 percent conviction rate. This record does not deviate substantially from that under the Soviet era, leading many to lack faith in an independent judiciary.

Taxation

Taxes levied in Ukraine include an income tax (the standard rate at 15 percent), corporate taxes (at 25 percent in 2010), as well as a value-added tax (VAT). Other fees and taxes are levied accordingly.

Armed Forces

Ukraine boasts the second largest military in Europe. Made up of Ground Forces, National Guard, Navy, Air Force, and Air Defense Force, the Ukrainian military was inherited by the newly independent state in 1991—along with its impressive arsenal. Since that time, the military has complied with the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) and is moving towards nuclear non-proliferation. Additionally, the military has come to be civilian controlled and is expected to be a volunteer force going into the second decade of the 21st century.

Ukraine is an active member of several UN Peacekeeping efforts, has declared neutrality, and has entertained the idea of joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a move that is not favored in neighboring Russia.

Foreign Policy

Ukraine's strategic location, large population, emerging economy, and sizeable military make it a potentially economic and political powerhouse. However, the country is still establishing its presence in international affairs, independent from the influence of Russia.

As part of the USSR, Ukraine had no separate foreign policy. International relations were dictated and led by the Soviet leadership in Moscow. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Ukraine declared its independence and its neutrality. It was a founding member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), a coalition of eleven former republics of the USSR, including Russia. Although the members of CIS were sovereign states, during the 1990s they followed Russia's lead on issues of foreign policy.

Since the turn of the 21st century, Ukraine has become more independent from Russia. Although it is neutral, Ukraine contributed troops and material to the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 (which was opposed in the UN by Russia). In 2005, Ukraine eliminated visa requirements for visitors from countries in the European Union (EU) and the US. Business and leisure travelers from these nations can now enter the country with only a passport. It has also strengthened ties to its neighbors, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania – all former communist states that have also embraced the West. In addition, Ukraine and Poland co-hosted the UEFA European Football championships in 2012, marking the first time that the tournament was held in Eastern Europe since 1976.

Ukraine has especially increased its efforts to join Western international organizations – especially the EU and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defense alliance (it applied for membership in 2008, but that decision was shelved due to influence from neighboring Russia). The existing members of both these organizations are split on whether Ukraine has made enough progress in economic and political reforms to be eligible for membership. In addition, they do not wish to directly confront Russia, which is strongly opposed to Ukraine joining NATO. The West is trying to maintain a balancing act by promising Ukraine that it will eventually be able to join these organizations, while delaying any immediate action that might increase tensions with Russia.

Another area in which Ukraine finds itself caught is in energy policy, where it seeks a positive relationship with its Western and European neighbors. Key natural gas pipelines from Russia to Western Europe run through Ukraine. Since 2000, Russia has twice suspended the gas supply, claiming Ukraine has failed to live up to financial agreements. These disruptions not only have an impact on Ukraine, but also cause energy prices in Western Europe to rise, affecting the global economy. Many observers believe that Russia's actions have been politically motivated, to punish Ukraine for moves toward the West, or to undermine the pro-Western government before key elections.

In 2010, the Ukrainian government announced that it was seeking funds from the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the World Bank to modernize its gas transportation system. During the Tymoshenko administration (2007–2010), the government had announced plans for gas infrastructure development, but implied that it would be doing so without the cooperation of the Russian government. In 2010, with a government under Prime Minister Azarov that was sympathetic and cooperative with the Russian government, the Ukrainian government declared its interest in seeking Russian cooperation.

Despite some of the government's efforts to move away from Russian influence, the country still contains a large Russian minority. The Russian language is still widely used, and the two nations share many other deep cultural and economic ties. In March 2014, Russia completed its annexation of Crimea—against the preferences of many in the international community. In August of the same year, Putin dispatched regular Russian troops into eastern Ukraine while publicly denying their presence. An on-again, off-again state of war over separation of the eastern region has existed since.

At the end of December 2014, Poroshenko signed a law dropping the country's nonaligned status, raising the possibility of joining NATO in the future.

Human Rights Profile

International human rights law insists that states respect civil and political rights, and promote an individual's economic, social, and cultural rights. The United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) is recognized as the standard for international human rights. Its authors sought the counsel of the world's great thinkers, philosophers, and religious leaders, and were careful to create a document that reflects the core values shared by every world culture. (To read this document or view the articles relating to cultural human rights, visit http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/.)

Human rights in Ukraine have improved since the country's independence, and particularly since the Orange Revolution of 2004. However, serious problems still exist, particularly in the areas of discrimination, police abuse and government corruption. And relations with Russia have weakened, owing to the annexation of Crimea. When measured against this document, Ukraine's s performance is mixed. Article 2 of the UDHR, which rejects discrimination of any kind, is particularly relevant in Ukraine, due to the significant presence of minority groups within the country. Officially, the government supports such initiatives as preserving the culture of the Roma (gypsies) and helping the displaced Tatar peoples return to their Crimean homeland. However, racism and anti-Semitism is widespread in society, and minority groups are often targets of police abuse.

Ukraine performs poorly with regard to Articles 9 through 11, which address legal protections from unjust arrest and imprisonment. Police violence and coercion in general remains a serious problem. Jails and prisons are overcrowded and unsanitary, and accused individuals often wait months before trial. In many ways, the criminal justice system has not changed since the Soviet era.

Men and women are free to enter into marriage by their own choice and to obtain divorces, as stated by Article 16. However, women often receive fewer financial and legal protections in the divorce process. Freedom of religion, as laid out in Article 18, is widely accepted. Orthodox Christianity is the dominant faith, but does not overtly influence government policy. Freedom of expression, as defined in Article 19, has greatly improved since the Soviet era. The government generally does not practice censorship, although it does manipulate the press for its own purposes.

The additional rights of expression and cultural participation described in Article 27 generally hold true, except for the mentally ill, who can be kept in psychiatric hospitals without their consent. However, protection of intellectual and artistic rights (copyrights) is weak and piracy has become a serious problem. Ukraine does support international efforts to promote basic human rights, as outlined in Article 28, as an active participant in UN peacekeeping missions and humanitarian efforts. Finally, with regards to Article 29, no individuals or groups officially receive any special preference or freedom from social obligations, although certain persons (politicians and the wealthy) are able to manipulate the system for their own advancement and benefit.

As Ukraine progresses in its transition from a Soviet republic to a sovereign nation, the Ukrainian government may be positively influenced by its desire to bring the country into international economic and political bodies, especially the EU. Since these organizations have basic human rights requirements, Ukraine's leadership will have to improve the situation in their country in order to be considered for membership.

Migration

In 2015, Ukraine's estimated migration rate is 2.25 per 1,000 persons, meaning that it is losing citizens. This is a reversal from its situation in the early 1990s, after independence, when many Ukrainians returned to Ukraine, often from other Soviet states. Even then, almost as many Ukrainians emigrated from Ukraine as entered. In the early 21st century, economic hardship is the greatest driver of Ukrainian emigration.

Overview of the Economy

Ukraine has been a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank since 1992. While widespread poverty and economic decline occurred in the 1990s, the economy has been growing. However, obstacles to widespread successful economic growth, including bureaucracy and corruption, remain a problem.

The country has begun to trade more extensively with Western European countries, and remains a steady trading partner with Russia. Some of the country's exports include ferrous and nonferrous metals, mineral products, chemicals, and machinery such as tractors. Ukraine also exports grain, transport equipment, and textiles.

In 2014, the gross domestic product (GDP) was an estimated $ 373.1 billion (USD). The per capita GDP was $ $8,200 (USD).

Industry

Roughly, one-third of the Ukrainian economy is based on industry and construction. Major industries include the manufacture of ferrous metals and products, coke, oil and gas transport, and fertilizer. Machinery that is manufactured in the country includes airplanes, turbines, metallurgical equipment, diesel locomotives, and tractors.

Labor

The labor force in Ukraine numbers more than 22 million people. In 2014, the unemployment rate was 8.8 percent. 68.4 percent of the workforce finds employment in the services sector, 26 percent are employed in industry, and almost six percent work in the agricultural sector.

Energy/Power/Natural Resources

One of Ukraine's most visible resources is its expanse of fertile agricultural land. Beneath the surface are deposits of coal, iron ore, natural gas, and petroleum.

Fishing

While not a major sector of the national economy, fisheries and fish canning are important to local economies. Ukraine is known for fish such as sturgeon, herring, carp, pike, and anchovies, found in the country's rivers, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov.

Forestry

Timber is harvested in Ukraine, and the lumber industry supports a number of paper manufacturers.

Mining/Metals

Ukraine is rich in minerals: rock salt, limestone, marl, and dolomite are all extracted from the land, as are coal and iron ore. The country is also the largest source of manganese in the world. Precious stones found in Ukraine include topaz, quartz, agate, opal, and garnet.

Agriculture

Agriculture accounts for 24 percent of Ukraine's economy. During the Soviet regime, farming was collectivized and controlled by the state. Today, the country is trying to update farming practices and identify environmentally friendly methods of farming.

Ukraine has fertile soil, and has historically been an important source of food in the Eastern European region. Major crops include wheat, corn, sugar beets, and sunflower seeds. Farmers in Ukraine also grow soybeans, tobacco, and flax.

Animal Husbandry

Ukraine has been a major producer of beef in the region.

Tourism

Tourism in Ukraine is a growing economic sector, accounting for roughly 13 percent of the country's GDP. Visitors contribute nearly $800 million (USD) to the economy per year. About 10 percent of the population is employed in the travel and tourism industries.

There are a number of beaches, spas, and resorts in the country, especially near the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. Increasing numbers of tourists are coming from Western Europe, often to go skiing in the Carpathian Mountains, or to cycle through the scenic countryside.

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