Population

China is the most populous country in the world, officially home to over 1.4 billion people. Unofficial counts add another 100 million. One-fifth of the planet's human inhabitants live in China, more than the combined populations of the European Union (510 million), United States (321 million), Brazil (203 million), Russia (142 million), Mexico (125 million), and Canada (35 million).

In 2015, there were about sixty cities with populations of over 1 million, compared to only thirteen in the US. One report stated that in 2015, China also had fifteen megacities--cities with more than 10 million people. Shanghai is the largest city, followed by the capital, Beijing. Other large cities include Hong Kong, Tianjin, Wuhan, and Shenyang.

In recent decades, there has been a massive migration from China's rural areas to its cities. More than half the country's population now lives in urban areas. Most migration has been to China's bustling southeastern coastline.

Principal Cities by Population (2015):

Languages

The Han, Manchu, and Hui speak Mandarin Chinese. Other dialects include Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghaiese), Minbei (Fuzhou), and Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese).

Native People & Ethnic Groups

The Han ethnic group makes up 92 percent of the population and dominates Chinese culture. The Zhuang are the largest minority group, with over 15 million people. Smaller ethnic groups of between 5 and 10 million include the Manchu, Hui, Miao, Uigur, Yi, and Tujia. Notable minorities of between 1 and 5 million include Mongol, Tibetan, and Korean.

China is part of one of the world's oldest civilizations. The country claims the first fossil record of Homo erectus, the 1.7 million-year-old Yuanmou Man. It is believed that Homo sapiens arrived in China from Africa around 65,000 years ago. Recorded evidence of various tribal civilizations in China dates from 5,000 to 8,000 years ago.

Religions

Because of the government's official support of atheism, accurate statistics on religious affiliation in China are unavailable. Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Taoism are practiced in at least 85,000 worship venues throughout the country.

Climate

Most of China's weather is influenced by two trends: cold, dry winter winds blowing south and east, and wet, warm westerly summer monsoon winds off the Pacific Ocean.

The southeastern part of the country is subtropical. Hong Kong's average winter temperature is 16° Celsius (61° Fahrenheit); its summer average is 28° Celsius (82° Fahrenheit). Approximately 80 percent of the region's annual rainfall arrives between May and September.

Along the coast, roughly fifteen tropical cyclones per year strengthen to become typhoons (hurricanes), half of which push torrential rains into southeast China. Southwest China's higher elevation promotes cooler summers, but winters remain mild, creating an extended growing season.

Central China's continental climate features cold, dry winters and warm, humid summers, much like the central United States. Beijing's average winter temperature is –4° Celsius (25° Fahrenheit); its average summer temperature is 26° Celsius (79° Fahrenheit). About 90 percent of annual rainfall occurs between April and August. The autumn months (September and October) are generally the most hospitable.

There are desert and arctic climates to the north and west. The average January temperature atop Mount Qomolangma is –36° Celsius (–33° Fahrenheit) with an average wind chill of –70° Celsius (–94° Fahrenheit).

Topography

China's land area is more than 9,500,000 square kilometers (3,668,000 square miles), nearly the same as the United States. Much of this vast terrain is mountainous, including the Himalaya, Kunlun, and Tian mountain ranges.

Mount Qomolangma on China's border with Nepal in the Himalayas, better known in the West as Mount Everest, is the highest peak in the World at 8,848 meters (29,029 feet) above sea level. Below it, the Tibetan Plateau, the “rooftop of the World,” stretches out at an average elevation of 4,510 meters (14,800 feet).

China generally slopes downward from west to east. Only about 12 percent of the country's area settles into flat plains regions. Its coastline stretches for 14,500 kilometers (9,010 miles) along thousands of islands in territorial waters. China's length and width are both over 5,200 kilometers (3,200 miles).

There are more than 1,500 significant rivers, 2,800 large natural lakes, and 2,000 man-made reservoirs throughout China. Its rivers typically drain eastward to the Pacific Ocean. The longest, the Yangtze River at 6,300 kilometers (3,915 miles), connects Shanghai with inland cities. The second largest Huang He (Yellow) River, in the northern part of the country, fills China's largest reservoir, the Long Men, at 35.4 billion cubic meters (1,250 billion cubic feet) capacity.

Poyang in Jiangxi Province is China's largest freshwater lake. Other large lakes include Dongting Tai, Hongze, and Gaoyou. Qinghai Lake is the country's largest inland saltwater lake.

Plants & Animals

Forests accounted for about 22 percent of China's land area in 2011. China's wide variety of forests, including tropical, subtropical, temperate, and boreal, are estimated to hold approximately 30,000 native plant species, twice as many as are found in the US. Subtropical southern ranges contain numerous tree species, including ginko, oak, bamboo, pine, magnolia, and azalea.

Thousands of plants native to China are grown around the world, including food crops such as soybeans, oranges, peaches and apricots; and flowers including forsythias, gardenias, magnolias, peonies, primroses, and rhododendrons.

Common animals in China's tropical areas include primates such as rhesus macaques. Temperate areas are home to dogs, cats, foxes, and wolves. Less abundant are bears and large cats. Wild horses roam upland western steeps. Camels, yaks, and water buffalo are used as work animals.

Rare animals include the endangered giant panda, found only in a few places in western central China, and the white-flag dolphin, a freshwater whale discovered in the Yangtze River in 1980 and last seen in 2002.

Greetings

Generally, the Chinese greet one another informally. A typical greeting may involve a polite nod or a slight bow, often accompanied by the saying, “Chi le ma?” (“Have you eaten?”). The accepted response is typically “Chi le” (“Yes”). It is common to reply with this response even if the individual has not eaten, out of politeness. A more formal greeting is “Ni hao” (“Hello, I'm pleased to meet you”).

Introductions are typically formal, with the oldest person greeted first, and then often addressed with his or her honorific title and surname. Chinese family names usually consist of one syllable; the given name, which consists of one or two syllables, follows the family name. In general, the Chinese address each other with their full name—family and given—and title rather than their given names, unless invited to do otherwise. Handshakes are commonly used for first time greetings and may be held for a long time. Many Chinese look at the ground during greetings as a sign of humility. A bow is usually made to show respect to the elderly or to officials.

Children are typically greeted with a gentle pat on the cheek or shoulder, but never touched on the head. In fact, adults refrain from touching another person on the head as well, because the head is considered a sacred part of the body. Generally, the Chinese are careful not to touch people they do not know at all, except when in crowded places.

Gestures & Etiquette

Honorable intentions are of great significance in Chinese culture. Typically, the Chinese do not offer criticism and are not direct in their opinions. It is considered polite to be reserved, quiet, and gentle, and the Chinese are careful to avoid hurting the feelings of others. For example, it is common for the Chinese to agree outwardly with someone, even if they disagree inwardly. Additionally, during a conversation it is considered impolite to frown or stare into the other person's eyes, as these are considered disrespectful actions. The use of the feet to move something, such as a door, is also considered disrespectful.

Gestures commonly used in Western cultures, such as pointing or waving, are basically meaningless in China. In fact, some can be construed as rude, such as pointing with the index finger or snapping one's fingers. Instead, the whole hand, palm up, should be used when pointing at something. Members of the opposite sex do not generally touch each other in public but will stand close to each other. Friends of the same sex, however, will sometimes hold hands or walk arm-in-arm.

Eating/Meals

The social habits and customs of dining do not vary much between rural and urban areas, nor across cultures. Meals are typically eaten with chopsticks and spoons. Food is often served communally and taken from bowls placed in the center of the table. Often, food is served to the guests by the host. Because of the communal nature of meals, it is generally not considered impolite to reach for food. However, the last bit of food is never taken from the bowl, and each person eating should leave some food on his plate. In addition, bones and seeds are never placed in the rice bowl or on a plate from which food is being eaten, but are placed on the table or in a bowl provided for that purpose. Chopsticks should never be left in the rice bowl, as this is considered bad manners and bad luck.

At restaurants, the host is expected to pay, although the guest may politely offer. Eating is generally for pleasure, and business is not usually discussed. Napkins are not commonly found at tables in restaurants. Banquets, in which food is plentiful, are common in China, and usually last for two or three hours. It is polite for a guest to try a little bit of everything at banquets, complimenting each dish. Although there are many street vendors in urban China, it is considered to be somewhat impolite to eat food while walking down the street (children are generally exempt from this rule).

Visiting

It is common in China for guests to drop in unannounced. Invitations are issued when the gathering is to be a more formal one. When guests arrive, it is considered polite to be punctual and to conduct oneself with restraint and dignity. Loud talking and boisterous laughter is avoided, and shoes should be removed upon entering the house. The guest should not complement items inside the home, such as artwork, as this may make the host feel obligated to give the object to the guest as a gift.

When visiting, it is appropriate for guests to bring a small gift for the host, but not anything too extravagant. Fruit, tea, wine, or candy are considered good gifts and should be given and received with both hands. Gifts are not typically opened immediately nor in the presence of the guests.

Refreshments are usually offered, and it is not impolite to refuse them, although the host will offer several times. If dinner is being served, guests will wait for the host to direct them where to sit. Conversation will usually center on the food. It is not uncommon for guests to be asked to participate in the entertainment at a party, such as singing. In these situations, it is considered rude to refuse the host. Since evenings usually end early in China—most Chinese arise very early to begin work—it is not uncommon for the host, in an effort to thank the guest for coming, to politely escort the guest out the door and even down the street.

Family

In the 21st century, China is rapidly emerging as a world power. This economic and political transition has affected every aspect of Chinese life, including the family unit. In the past, couples traditionally lived with the husband's parents. Marriages were arranged by parents or by the “work unit” boss, and divorce was almost unheard of. In addition, public security bureaus checked communist credentials before marriage licenses were issued.

Today, China no longer subsidizes apartments or guarantees jobs, and young adults are expected to find their own spouses, as marriages are no longer arranged. Western-style weddings are considered a status symbol. Once married, many Chinese forgo living at home, as earlier generations did. However, most choose to settle only a few blocks away from their parents. Divorce is more common in the early 21st century than it ever was and continues to increase as women become more economically marketable and independent.

For decades, China maintained a one-child policy. This law stated that married couples must have only one child for the good of the country. However, couples could pay a fee in order to have more than one child, and rural couples could have a second child if the first child was a girl or was disabled. Critics of this policy point out that this hurts the elderly, as one adult child will eventually be taking care of two parents and four grandparents. In order to solve this problem, some provinces allowed couples where each parent was an only child to have two children rather than just one. In 2014 this policy started to ease, and in 2015 was abandoned.

Housing

Housing in China varies widely from simple farmhouses in rural areas to luxury high-rise apartments in the cities. Prior to the mid-1980s, it was highly uncommon for the Chinese to own their homes. Before the reform policy, housing was mostly provided by work unions, and the size and quality of the housing provided depended on the person's position in the company. Today, it is common for the Chinese to purchase their own homes. As such, investing in real estate has become popular.

Most people who live in urban areas make their homes in high-rise apartment communities. Typically, luxury high-rise apartments have electricity, central heating, and air-conditioning, with hot water and plumbing for kitchens and bathrooms. In contrast, homes in rural areas are usually detached and modest in design, with no running water or electricity. In addition, the average living space in urban apartments is 10.6 square meters (114 square feet), compared to 20.7 square meters (222 square feet) for homes in rural areas.

It is not easy for low-income families to buy an apartment. To help, the government has used public funds to design low-income housing projects, such as the “Warm Home Project” in Beijing. The residents pay a small percentage of the price and are given a low-interest loan for the rest. It is still common in most Chinese cities to see neighborhoods composed of older, traditional housing, typically consisting of cement-built one-room homes squeezed in between high-rise apartments.

Food

Chinese cuisine is largely defined by region. While there are eight important regional styles—Anhui, Cantonese, Fujian, Hunan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Sichuan, and Zhejiang (called the Eight Great Traditions)—four major and influential regions or styles categorize Chinese cuisine. These are Beijing, Shanghai, Sichuan/Szechuan, and Cantonese (called the Four Great Traditions). Cantonese is most familiar to Americans, as it is the most popular style served in Chinese restaurants overseas.

However, the regional cuisines of China share many similarities. For example, foods common to all regions include staples such as potatoes, noodles, rice, meal, and other grains. In addition, fruits and vegetables are commonly eaten according to season, with the mixing of vegetables with sauce a common regional characteristic. Meat is usually mixed with rice, and includes pork, beef, chicken, or fish. Dairy is rare in rural areas. A dish common to all areas of China are jiaozi, or dumplings. Jiaozi are typically fried, boiled, or steamed, and can be filled with almost any food. They are popular with street vendors as a snack food and are common in fine restaurants. Jiaozi tang, or dumpling soup, is also very popular.

Beijing's most famous dish is the Peking roast duck. An unnamed palace chef first created Peking duck for the emperor during the Ming Dynasty. Later, the recipe was smuggled out of the palace kitchens and onto the streets of Beijing. To create the dish, the duck is first air-dried, then coated with a special mixture of syrup and soy sauce before being roasted. This creates a delicate, crispy skin. It is then presented to the patrons and carved into pieces, which are wrapped in pancakes with onions, cucumber, turnips, and plum sauces.

Shanghai's food is usually seafood-based and often features heavy and spicy sauces. Typically, this regional style is prepared with lots of oil. A favorite dish in Shanghai is the da zha xie (hairy crab). Normally eaten in the winter, it is a crab only found in rivers. They are steamed in bamboo containers and served with vinegar.

Sichuan/Szechuan food is typically very spicy and is often prepared with the Sichuan peppercorn, a strong, fragrant, plant that produces numbing, citrus-y flavor. This flavor can be found in the one of the more popular Sichuan dishes, kung pao chicken. To make the original Sichuan version of this dish, the wok (a traditional round-bottomed cooking vessel) is first seasoned. Red chilies and Sichuan peppercorns are flash-fried to add their essence to the oil. Then, chicken that has been previously diced and left soaking in a Saoxing wine marinade is stir-fried, along with vegetables and peanuts.

Cantonese food is the most popular style of Chinese food found outside of China. It comes from the Guangzhou region in southern China and consists of a huge variety of dishes made from all kinds of foods. Soup, consisting of a clear broth prepared by simmering meats and spices for hours, is important in Cantonese meals and is usually served first.

Fresh seafood is a Cantonese specialty. Dishes made with prawns and shrimp are especially popular. Another popular Cantonese food is char siu, or barbecued pork. This dish consists of long strips of boneless pork coated with a seasoning made from sugar, soy sauce, red food coloring, sherry, and five-spice powder. This sauce turns the meat dark red during cooking. The pork is cooked on a long fork held over a fire and served with rice or in a bun.

Hong Kong bills itself as the “culinary capital of Asia,” a title that refers to the incredible amount and variety of food available in the region. According to Hong Kong's board of tourism, the territory boasts more than 12,000 licensed restaurants. Most, though not all, of the territory's residents enjoy a Cantonese-style diet of rice, meat, fish, and vegetables that are usually stir fried in oil or water and served in soy or ginger-based sauces.

For purposes of tourism, the territory is broken up into food “districts,” including Causeway Bay, Kowloon City, Lan Kwai Fong and Soho, Sai Kung, Lamma Island, and Lei Yue Mun, Stanley, Tsim Sha Tsui, and Hung Hom. Each district has a mixture of culinary styles, but tends toward a particular regional cuisine. Aberdeen Harbor is famous for its floating restaurants.

Hong Kong is famous for its dim sum, a ceremonial meal served in the morning and made of a wide variety of bite-sized finger foods. Meat or seafood-filled dumplings, buns, and seafood balls all appear on the dim sum trolleys from which diners choose their selections.

Hong Kong's cosmopolitan style also includes foods from other parts of Asia and China, as well as from Europe, South America, and North America.

Life's Milestones

Bloodlines are extremely important in Chinese culture, and producing children to maintain those bloodlines has long been an important part of Chinese tradition. As such, the birth of a child is greeted with great joy, and rituals continue throughout the child's first year of life. After giving birth, the mother rests in her bed for one month, during which time family and friends wait upon her. At the end of the month, the family typically has a “one-month” celebration for the baby, including offering sacrifices for the baby's protection if that family is Buddhist or Taoist. Prayers to the ancestors are offered as well, informing them of the baby's birth. This celebration is very similar to parties thrown in Western cultures for a baby's first birthday (first birthdays are typically not celebrated in Chinese culture).

As part of the celebration, the parents of the baby give gifts to relatives and friends. Red eggs are usually part of the gift, as they are a symbol of the beginning of life. (Red is also considered the color of happiness). Other gifts may include cakes and even chickens. Then, it is the family's turn to give gifts to the baby. The presents include things that the baby may need or like, such as food or toys. However, the baby is more commonly given money wrapped in red paper. In addition, grandparents usually give the baby something made of gold or silver. The celebration usually concludes with a rich feast given by the parents, at either their home or a restaurant. Babies in China are considered “one” the moment they are born.

Art & Architecture

The earliest patrons of the arts were China's emperors. They would issue royal decrees concerning the creation of art, and how art was to be applied. Thus, a long tradition of artists being largely employed and controlled by the royal court or the government was established. Often, early Chinese artists were encouraged to continue the artistic styles and traditions of previous dynasties. Amateur artists, on the other hand, were free to create art that reflected their individual tastes. This division led to the creation of two groups of art that lasted for centuries: imperial art, which was often similar in design and theme, and independent art, which varied widely from imperialistic trends.

The Bronze Age in China (roughly 2000–700 BCE), which encompassed the Shang Dynasty (c. 176–1122 BCE) to the Six Dynasties (222–589 CE), featured art that focused on the dead. During this era, members of the royal court were intent on securing immortality and commissioned artists to construct and decorate lavish tombs. Artists also created beautiful bronze vessels and weapons to be placed near the coffins for the deceased to take with them into the next world. Other items often placed in tombs include carved jades and ceramics.

Buddhism arose following the collapse of the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE), and brought with it a new style of art from India. During this period, the subject matter of art became worldlier, with less focus on death. Landscape and portrait painting flourished, and sculpture gained popularity. Sculpture was particularly created on a grand scale. Massive stone carvings of Buddha, such as those created in the mountains of Henan and Shensi, were common. Gu Kaizhi (Ku K'ai-chih), considered the father of landscape painting, was a preeminent artist during this period. Wooden pagodas also became popular during this time.

The Tang period (618–907 CE), often referred to as China's “golden age,” was a time when all art began to flourish. The stable government and strong economy of this period led to strong interests in painting, ceramics—particularly porcelain—metalwork, music and poetry. The dynasties following the Tang Dynasty did not introduce new art, but rather refined and expanded on the Tang Dynasty's achievements.

During the Song Dynasty (1960–1279 CE), landscape painting became more popular, especially among amateur artists. Within the royal court, portrait painting rose to prominence, and paintings depicting royal families were often produced in great quantities. Birds and flowers were also favorite subjects of the royalty. Calligraphy was elevated to an art form during this time. The Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), also known as the Mongol Dynasty, was a quieter time in the history of Chinese art, since the Mongol invasion caused many court artists to retire.

The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 CE) marked the end of Mongol rule in Chinese history. The Ming court was known for its lavish and highly detailed decorative arts and for establishing the royal painting academy. This academy was renowned for producing famed Chinese artists such as Wen Zhengming (1470–1559), a leading painter of the Ming era. Because he chose simple subjects, Wen Zhengming's paintings are known for evoking a sense of strength arising from humble origins.

In 1644, the Manchu nation (a group of people originating in what is now northeastern China) seized control of China. The rulers embraced the art of the Ming Dynasty, often improving on the ornate styles associated with that period. During the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), the last ruling dynasty of China, Chinese art increased in popularity abroad.

The post-imperial period began in 1911 with the formation of the Republic of China under Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925). Under this new republic, the people of China, including artists, began to feel pressure to accept Western ideas in the name of modernization. Many artists studied overseas and brought back new ideas such as the use of bold colors, abstraction, and European brushwork in painting. Most decorative arts, however, remained traditional in style. In 1949, the socialist People's Republic of China (PRC) was founded, and painting and decorative arts were infused with political content, largely under the direction of Mao Zedong (1893–1976). Most themes deliberately praised socialism, a political philosophy which property and the distribution of wealth are community or state-controlled. However, since Mao's death in 1976, Chinese art has become less political.

The structural principals of Chinese architecture were established as early as the Neolithic period, or the New Stone Age, in China (c. 10,000–2,000 BCE). They remained largely unchanged until the 20th century, when Western influences introduced a fusion of traditional Chinese designs with modern needs. Throughout its history, there have been many different styles of Chinese architecture, including Buddhist architecture, Taoist architecture, garden architecture, and Imperial architecture, all with their own unique and ornate styles.

Chinese architecture is based on several principles that emphasize balance and symmetry. One of the most important principles is the emphasis on the horizontal axis. Quite simply, traditional Chinese architecture is constructed in a vertical manner, and the width is emphasized over depth or height. As such, a building was typically supported by columns or pillars, with walls merely serving as screens within. Large roofs and low ceilings heights are also common.

Another principle found in Chinese architecture is the emphasis on bilateral symmetry and articulation. This principle is found in all types of buildings, from modest farmhouses to palaces. Enclosing space within the building is also common and can be seen in the use of open courtyards and the “sky yard.” The latter is created when closely spaced buildings form intersections. In addition, the sky can be typically seen through small openings in the roof.

A final principle in Chinese architecture involves the placement of buildings on a property. For example, secondary structures considered less important are built alongside the main building, typically positioned as wings on either side. In this way, Chinese architecture is also hierarchical. In addition, the most important buildings have doors that face the front of the property, while buildings that face away from the front are the least important. The more private parts of property are reserved for buildings that house elder members of the family.

While these structural principles of Chinese architecture have transcended time and socioeconomic boundaries, certain architectural styles and traditions were based on the projected use of the building. For example, houses for commoners such as farmers or merchants were generally built in a “U” shape, with the center being a shrine for ancestors. Next to the shrine were bedrooms for the elders, and wings or additions were built for extended family members. Certain architectural features were reserved strictly for the Imperial family. Yellow (the Imperial color) roof tiles and red (favored by the ancient Chinese) walls signify royalty and can still be seen in the Forbidden City. In addition, the Chinese dragon was used on roofs, doors, and pillars of Imperial buildings.

One of the most important elements of traditional Chinese architecture is the use of timber framework. A traditional residence is typically constructed with a timber frame, with pillars supporting a roof and earthen walls on three sides. Typically, the fourth side is the front side and contains the door and windows. Decorative art and carvings were then added. The use of wood, representing life, is important to the Chinese. Although colorful lacquer, or varnish, is applied to the wood to preserve it, most traditional buildings did not survive very long, and very few buildings now predate the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 CE). This basic structural form, however, lasted into the modern age. Chinese architecture was also largely influential in developing the styles of Korean, Vietnamese, and Japanese architecture.

Music, Dance & Theater

Music and dance represent two of the oldest art forms in Chinese culture. In fact, Chinese dancing figures are depicted on ceramic artifacts dating back to the fourth millennium BCE. Music was often used in early Chinese rituals and official ceremonies. As music evolved in ancient China, it was gradually used for almost any activity and added structure and routine to daily life.

The earliest forms of dance were divided into two groups: military and civilian dancing. Civilian dances generally depicted everyday events such as hunting. Often, dances were created to simply express joy or to be incorporated into religious worship. In fact, from these early religious dances came the first forms of Chinese theater. (Theater continued to evolve over the years, and by the Han Dynasty, it had become the most important art form in China.) Although musicians were of lower status than painters, music was seen as central to the harmony of the state. Early Chinese folk music and dance was typically maintained and developed by each subsequent emperor. Traditional Chinese music was also heavily influenced by foreign music, especially folk music from East Asia.

A state-controlled music bureau was established during the Han Dynasty, and efforts were made to collect and preserve folk songs and dances. However, as other people of Asia invaded China, their forms of dancing merged with the Chinese. During the Tang Dynasty, culture and dance flourished and many dance and music academies were formed. The lavish and extraordinary “Ten Movement Dance,” which featured elements from several different Asian countries, was performed during this time. This art form later evolved into the earliest form of Chinese opera.

The development of Chinese theater reached its pinnacle during the Yuan Dynasty. During this period, Chinese theater first began to be known as operas. These operas were organized around plots both historical and contemporary, and were typically performed with lavishly decorated costumes and stages. Later forms of the opera included the famous Peking Opera, which features song, dance, elaborate props, and displays of martial arts and acrobatics.

Western music became influential during the New Culture Movement, a period spanning 1917 to 1923 during which China's cultural heritage was criticized. Chinese musicians returning from abroad began to include the Western style of music in their work (Western music is based on an eight-note scale rather than the traditional five-note scale found in Chinese music). Many Chinese philosophers criticized the new sound. Regardless, symphony orchestras arose in major cities, and jazz was blended with traditional sounds.

Beginning the 1940s, the government launched a campaign to change folk music, adding revolutionary songs to further the goals of communism. Any folk songs considered superstitious or rebellious were repressed. Soon, the government denounced Chinese popular music as harmful and began to heavily promote revolutionary songs. The Cultural Revolution (roughly 1966–1976), a period marked by political and cultural tension in which certain aspects of life were forbidden, made these songs popular and they became the predominant form of music in China.

During the rebellions of the early 1990s, a new fast-tempo style of Chinese music arose as a way to counter the government. This style gave way to rock music, which remains popular in contemporary China. Music and dance, however, are still very much state-owned in China. In fact, the government owns the media as well as all major concert halls. Today, folk dances are protected and still performed at state ceremonies. Western forms of dance are also popular, and many dance academies throughout China cater to young people wishing to learn ballet, modern dance, and others non-traditional forms.

Literature

Chinese literature has its beginnings in the earliest recorded court archives of thousand-year old dynasties. Woodblock printing was invented during the Tang Dynasty and movable type printing during the Song Dynasty. The Ming Dynasty saw the rise of the fictional novel. In more modern times, author Lu Xun (1881–1936), the pen name of Zhou Shuren, founded baihau literature, or literature written in standard Mandarin. This style of literature was typically easier to read than earlier literature, which was often written in ancient forms of the Chinese language.

Generally, the history of Chinese literature can be divided into four periods: classical, contemporary, modern, and present day. Classical literature refers to the earliest recorded written words from over 3,000 years ago, as well as literary works written prior to the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. Most famously, the first thousand years of writing are attributed to Confucius (551–479 BCE) and are based on the famous Chinese philosopher's conversations with students and other social thinkers. Written in ancient languages, most ancient Chinese literature is extremely difficult to understand and is focused entirely around the Chinese feudal society.

Contemporary literature covers the period from the late Qing Dynasty to the spring of 1919, when the rise of patriotic movements against imperialism and feudalism arose. During this period, literary reformers such as Hu Shi (1891–1962) and Chen Duxiu (1879–1942) proclaimed the classical language “dead.” Chinese authors began to absorb and reflect Western thoughts and ideas. Novels and poetry often embraced themes of patriotism and reviled social ills. Baihau literature, as popularized by Lu Xun, is included in this period.

Modern literature spans the time from 1919 to the founding of the PRC in 1949. Literature during this time featured strong political views, and an eye toward the future. To appeal and communicate with readers, literature during this period often featured the ordinary lives of the Chinese people. In addition, women authors became quite popular, such as Ding Ling (1904–1986). Her story “Diary of Miss Sophie” is largely credited with giving the public direct access to female thought and feelings.

Present day literature refers to literature created from 1949 to the present. During the years 1949 to 1976, the Communist Party slowly nationalized the publishing industry in China. The government thus controlled book distribution, forcing writers to join the Writers Union. In this way, they were able to censor their work. However, following the Cultural Revolution there was an explosion of writing. Writers were free to write about sensitive subject matter in unconventional styles, and literature turned commercial and escapist. Wang Shuo (b.1958–) is one such writer known for commercialism in his writing. Not all modern Chinese literature is commercial, however. Women authors, most notably Chen Ran (b.1962–), began focusing on societal issues such as the rapidly changing role of women in Chinese modern society.

Arts & Entertainment

The place of the arts in contemporary China is very different from only a few decades ago. The Cultural Revolution saw the destruction of a large number of cultural treasures, and the practice of most arts and crafts was severely curtailed or forbidden. In the 1980s, the Chinese government repudiated those policies and began efforts to renew China's artistic heritage. With restrictions loosened, artists are now free to explore subjects other than propaganda and often adopt Western techniques and themes in the process.

China has a long, rich literary tradition, due in part to the development of printing in the 11th century. Chinese ink-brush calligraphy has been used for thousands of years and is an art in itself. The country's dramatic landscape has inspired painters for centuries and the art of penjing (“tray scenery”) gardening is an ancient forerunner of the Japanese art of bonsai.

Chinese culture suffered under the communist government's Cultural Revolution. Popular Beijing (Peking) opera groups could only perform government-sanctioned propaganda works. However, a pervasive interest in Western culture accompanied later economic reforms.

Still, government censorship remains an issue in contemporary China. The role of the government in promoting the arts is combined with its ability to control them. Recently, a painting entitled Birds Nest, in the Style of Cubism by Zhang Hongtu (1943–) was banned from display in China because it featured pro-Tibetan language. The government has also outlawed performance art in China, although Chinese performance artists continue to work outside of the country.

Cinemas are popular, often showing Western or Japanese films, as are traditional acrobatic shows by groups such as the Shanghai Acrobatic Troupe.

Cultural Sites & Landmarks

Perhaps China's most significant and iconic landmark is one that took successive dynasties to build and over one million men to fortify: the Great Wall of China. Considered one of the New Seven Wonders of the World, the Great Wall is historically and architecturally significant. It stretches across plains, mountains, desserts, and valleys, running east to west across China for approximately 6,700 kilometers (4,163 miles). The wall was built and rebuilt in sections over several centuries (fifth century BCE to the 16th century CE), and was successfully joined during the Qin Dynasty. In addition to being named one of the wonders of the world, in both medieval and modern times, the Great Wall was listed as a World Heritage Site in 1987.

In fact, China is home to forty-eight United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites, boasting one of the largest collections of such sites in the world. Many of these sites are areas of historic or natural interest, and include mountains and valleys, national parks, ancient cities and villages, and traditional burial grounds and temples. One particularly unique World Heritage Site is the Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian, where human remains dating back 500,000 years were unearthed.

The Summer Palace, a beautiful and popular tourist attraction located in the capital of Beijing, is another World Heritage Site. Built in 1750 and restored in 1886, it is a stunning example of Chinese garden landscaping, which represents the Chinese philosophy of combining the works of humans and nature into a pleasing design. In this case, the works of humans consist of halls with intricately carved designs, temples, bridges, and palaces. The natural landscape is made up of hills, open water, indigenous plants, and ponds.

Mount Emei, inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1996 and located in Sichuan Province, is the location of the first Buddhist temple ever built in China. Built in the first century CE, this temple was followed by many others, including the Giant Buddha of Leshan. Carved directly into a hillside during the Tang Dynasty, it took over ninety years to build. It is the largest Buddha in the world and stands at approximately 71 meters (233 feet) high. Each finger is 3 meters (9 feet) long, and each shoulder is wide enough to serve as a basketball court.

Xian, one of the oldest cities in Chinese history, also contains one of the most significant archaeological finds of the 20th century, the Terra Cotta Warriors and Horses. At the age of thirteen, the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE), began to build his mausoleum immediately upon taking the throne. Discovered in 1974 by peasants digging for a well, the mausoleum site was immediately protected and excavated. The museum that stands there today is made up of three pits covering an area of 16,300 square meters (175,451 square feet), all featuring several thousand life-sized terracotta figures of warriors (including weapons), horses and chariots arranged in battle formations. In total, over 7,000 of these pottery figures have been unearthed and restored.

Libraries & Museums

Beijing is China's cultural center, home to museums such as the Forbidden City (built 1420 and made into a museum in 1925) and the National Art Museum of China (1958 at its current location; preparation for a new venue has begun). The China Art Museum (formerly Shanghai Art Museum) (original site 1952; current site 1996) houses ancient Chinese art. Five science museums opened in Shanghai between 1999 and 2001, including the Science and Technology Museum. Classical gardens such as Shanghai's Yuyuan Garden, once the province of the country's elite, are now public.

Holidays

Spring Festival is the most important holiday in the People's Republic of China, coinciding with the traditional Chinese lunar New Year in late January or early February. Spring Festival celebrations may last for ten days or more.

Other major state holidays are International Labor Day, beginning May 1, and often running for a full week, and National Day (October 1), which usually runs for ten days from Friday to Sunday. Minor holidays include Buddha's Birthday (May 16), and recognition of Western holidays such as New Year's Day and Christmas.

Youth Culture

Generally, the youth of China are characterized as a generation struggling to find their identity. Parental obsession with academic achievement has typically driven young urban Chinese to overachieve and focus singularly on their education. Often, colleges undervalue volunteer work or other extracurricular activities, which results in low participation in these activities. In addition, urban youth, in particular, do not usually hold jobs. The importance of religion has declined among younger generations, and personal identity is more commonly defined by consumer brands and technology.

Cell phones and the Internet have become very important to Chinese youth, and form the basis of their connections to one another. In fact, Chinese youth have been generally quick to adopt text messaging and instant messaging as common forms of communication. Often, the understanding of or access to technology serves as a social status indicator among youth. This dependence upon technology has been largely criticized by older generations for the country's rising levels of early teen sex and recent cases of teen homicides and suicides among Chinese youth.

Transportation

Bicycles and motorbikes are extremely popular and are the predominant mode of transportation in urban China, second only to walking. In 2013, it was estimated that approximately 200 million electric bicycles were being used in China. The average Chinese citizen uses a bicycle to get to work, shopping, and other activities. The country's economic growth has increased the number of Chinese citizens who are able to afford automobiles and sales have increased greatly in recent years. China's Ministry of Commerce has estimated that China is now home to the world's largest car market.

Transportation Infrastructure

Rail is a widely used mode of transportation in China, and the country has the world's third largest rail network. Railways connect every part of the country and extend into Tibet and bordering countries. The total amount of track as of 2014 was 191,270 kilometers (118,849 miles).

China also has around 500 airports and more than 2,000 ports. Most major cities in China either have operating subway systems or are in the process of building them. In 2015, Beijing alone had plans for three new subway projects with a price tag of $7 billion each.

The paved road and expressway system in China covers more than 84,946 kilometers (52,782 miles), making China's system of highways second only to the United States (U.S.) in size. This has led to a rapid increase in automobile use.

Media & Communications

State agencies own and control all media in China, including the Internet. There are over 2,000 newspapers in China and over 2,000 television stations. Although state-run and bound by restrictions—for example, criticism of the communist party is forbidden—media content is becoming more and more diverse. This diversity arose because the government is no longer paying subsidies to these media outlets. Instead, they are expected to pay most of the costs from advertising revenue, which necessitates competition for viewers and produces more interesting and diverse programming.

China has more Internet users than any other country in the world: over 600 million. China's censorship of the Internet is extremely sophisticated, and one estimate puts the number of blocked websites at 3,000. These blocked sites include the BBC, Facebook, Twitter, and Google (replaced with Google China). However, absolute control over Internet content has proven difficult, and controversial domestic and international stories sometimes slip through censors.

China also has the highest number of mobile phone users: over 1.3 billion. Even migrant workers carry cell phones, which are usually obtained from South Korea. Cell phone users tend to be very serious about their phones and are sharply divided by generation. In China, as in most Asian countries, users buy cards with minutes to add to their phones, rather than committing to a long-term cell phone usage plan.

Films in China must be deemed suitable for viewing by all ages in order to be screened. Oftentimes, scenes are removed from foreign films before they are shown and the government limits the amount of time foreign films are shown in theaters.

Standard of Living

In 2014, China was ranked 91 out of 187 countries on the United Nations Human Development Index. It was one of the most dramatically improved of ranked countries, although the rural population often lives at near-subsistence levels.

Water Consumption

Water pollution is severe due to erosion and industrialization. Approximately 200 million Chinese drink water that is below safe bacteria levels and, approximately 980 million drink water that is partially polluted. Water shortages are frequent; due to dams, irrigation, silt, and reservoirs, the Yellow River runs dry for more than 1,000 kilometers (600 miles) from its former mouth on the northeastern coast.

The government announced 172 major water conservation projects by 2020. Issues related to water supply and consumption are overseen by the Water Resources Ministry. Drought has also been a continuing problem in parts of China.

Education

During the 1960s, China's communist government closed most schools. In the 1980s, new leader Deng Xiaoping made education a much greater priority. The 1986 “Compulsory Education Law of the PRC” mandates primary education (generally six years) for all children. Three years of junior secondary schooling is also standard in urban areas. Today, an estimated 90 percent of all children complete primary school, and 73 percent complete junior secondary education.

In 2004, China had 17 million students enrolled in more than 2,000 colleges and advanced vocational schools, triple the number from 1999. Students receive strong encouragement to study science and engineering. In contrast to shrinking enrollments in the United States, China graduated 325,000 engineering students in 2004, as opposed to 65,000 in the U.S. The average literacy rate in China is high, at 96 percent (98 percent among men and 94.5 percent among women) as of 2015.

Hong Kong's educational system earns attention apart from the rest of China because it is loosely based on the English model inherited from 19th-century colonizers. Most children attend kindergarten for up to three years. Most primary schools teach in Chinese and teach English as a second language. The many international schools in Hong Kong teach in other languages with different curricula. Primary and secondary education in the public schools is free.

Under the Secondary Schools Allocation System, each finishing primary school student is directed to a particular “band” for secondary school, based on the student's performance in primary school and the primary school's performance within the Hong Kong system.

Students must attend five years of secondary school: three years of general education and two years of specialized studies. Secondary school grade levels are called “forms.” After completing form five, students take the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination in order to be promoted to form six (lower six). Those who score satisfactorily on the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examinations the following year attend upper six (form seven).

Those students who have completed upper six in secondary schools are rated by examination performances and other factors for admission to one of Hong Kong's numerous colleges and universities. The most prominent of these are the University of Hong Kong, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, and the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology.

Women's Rights

The promise of equality and equal rights for women first surfaced in China in 1949. That is when Mao's revolution put an end to the ancient practice of foot binding and created marriage laws that made men and women equal. These changes represented a drastic shift from the traditions of ancient China, where women were largely perceived as property owned by men. While the status of women has risen steadily, most of the effects are felt only in the more educated and urban areas of the country.

In urban China, women are claiming new status and power, especially in the workplace. For example, women in cities earn an average of over 40 percent of their household's income. Girls in China are earning higher grades than their male counterparts do, and more women are now attending college. In rural China, however, poor families are more apt to maintain old traditions, such as choosing husbands and arranging marriages for their daughters. Women in rural China do not work outside of the home, nor do they initiate divorce, although Chinese law gives them that right. Furthermore, higher education among women in rural China is alarmingly low.

Unfortunately, discrimination and violence against women remain common problems in China. Public awareness of domestic violence is low, and there are many rural areas that have no access to women's services. Sons are still preferred over daughters, and this has led to selective-sex abortions and higher rates of female infant mortality. More importantly, China's one-child policy has caused a gender imbalance in the country. Abusive enforcement measures such as forced abortions and sterilizations have been documented for years.

To combat the gender imbalance, the Chinese government has recently launched a campaign entitled “Care for Girls.” The campaign focuses on raising awareness of the societal stereotypes surrounding girls and women, educating the public on their equal value. This advocacy program was created mainly for parents in rural areas in order to change cultural attitudes toward having girls. In 2004, economic support was offered to girl-only families who live in these rural areas.

Health Care

Health care in China is administered through village, township, and county hospitals. Village doctors must finish junior secondary school and complete three to six months of training. Township doctors must complete primary and secondary education and three years of medical school. County hospital physicians are the most capable, typically completing four to five years of medical school.

Insurance and state-assisted health care financing has evolved rapidly as the state struggles to provide care for all citizens. In 2004, it was estimated that 38 percent of the population ignored illness or injury due to the cost of professional medical treatment. In 2008, the government made a commitment to provide affordable health care for all its citizens by 2020 and in 2015, the government said it had reached 95 percent of its goal.

China's birth rate declined dramatically after 1980 due to government intervention that encouraged contraception, late marriage, and a “one couple, one child” policy. Due to a number of factors, such as an aging population and a growing gender ratio imbalance, it is reported that this policy changed in late 2015 to allow for two children per couple. In 2015, the birth rate was roughly 2.5 births per 1,000 people. The infant mortality rate was 12 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2015. The average life expectancy was seventy-five years; seventy-seven years among women and seventy-three years among men (2015 estimate).

Structure

China's Chinese Communist Party (CCP) came to power in 1949 under Mao Zedong. It emphasized centralized power, state-owned industry, and communal farms. Modern leadership has moved toward Western-style business practices, but China's constitution, last updated in 2004, is largely ceremonial in light of continued tight control over freedom of speech, political protest, and interpretation of law.

The Premier leads the powerful State Council, and the General Secretary heads the Communist Party. Elected members of the National People's Congress appoint State Council members. All 2,987 elected members of the 2013 congress were first approved by the CCP.

Protest over political restrictions flared in 1989, led by students in Beijing's Tiananmen Square. After about two months, government tanks and troops put a forceful end to the demonstrations. China's government has also used violence to silence ethnic unrest, the cases of Tibetan and Uighur independence and autonomy being the most recent.

Regional government is divided into twenty-two provinces, five autonomous regions, the municipalities of Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Chongqing, and the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau.

Political Parties

The Communist Party of China (CPC) is the dominant political force throughout China, and the country is essentially a single-party state. All other minority parties that exist in the country do so at the approval and direction of the CPC. Among these are the Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang, the China Democratic League, and the China Zhi Gong.

Although parties opposing the communist system of government are not publicly banned, their message is censored and their activists are repressed—sometimes by imprisonment. These parties include the Chinese Democracy and Justice Party, the China Democracy Party, the Party for Freedom and Democracy in China, and the Human Rights Party.

Local Government

China's twenty-two provinces (Taiwan is considered a 23^rd province by China) are subdivided into districts, counties, and cities. At the local level, authority resides with local people's councils. Often, in areas far from urban centers, local government operates via more traditional and cultural systems of organization. Nonetheless, the central party retains dominant control. China's urban centers hold elections, but they are strictly supervised by the government.

Judicial System

China's judicial system is divided into local courts, special courts, and supreme courts. The Supreme People's Court in Beijing overseas all decisions made by subordinate courts. Additionally, Courts of Special Jurisdiction include the Military Court of China, the Railway Transport Court of China, and the Maritime Court of China.

Local courts have jurisdiction over criminal and civil matters. Local courts are divided into three levels: High People's Courts, the Intermediate People's Courts, and the Primary People's Courts.

Critics of China's judicial system claim that the country's courts have to work in a political environment that demands allegiance to the communist government. However, academics who specialize in Chinese law also state that the courts are becoming more responsive to the people. An outline for reform of the court system was released in 2014 with the government vowing to make it more independent and professional.

Taxation

The Ministry of Finance establishes tax policies. The State Administration of Taxation oversees tax collection in China. Taxes make up the largest source of revenue for the Chinese government, and a wide variety of corporate and individual taxes exist in the country. Among these are the following: individual income tax, business tax, city maintenance and construction tax, and house property tax. Vehicle taxes and agricultural taxes are also collected.

Taxes are collected for both local and central government use. In addition, shared taxes are collected. In 2012, the Chinese government collected an estimated $1.9 trillion (USD) in tax revenue.

Armed Forces

Chinese's armed forces operate under a single moniker, that of the People's Liberation Army (PLA). The army consists of the PLA Ground Force, the PLA Navy, and the PLA Air Force, as well as the Second Artillery Corps. The chair of the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party commands the PLA. Since 1990, individuals who held this post have held the post of general secretary of the Communist Party of China, who also serves as president of the People's Republic of China.

Military service in China is compulsory. The PLA represents the world's largest military force, consisting of some 2.3 million active members. In 2009, China's military reserves were estimated at 429 million.

Foreign Policy

As a founding member of the United Nations (UN), China works actively to maintain diplomatic relationships with most of the major countries in the world (the PRC government in Beijing assumed China's UN seat in 1971 after the Republic of China was expelled). In addition, China has a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council (UNSC). However, in order to establish diplomatic relationships with a country, China has a requirement: the country must acknowledge China's claim to Taiwan and sever official ties with Taiwan's government. This particular foreign policy has been the source of frequent tension between China and other countries.

In recent history, China has had some conflicts with foreign countries, including the United States during the U.S.-China spy plane incident in 2001 and Japan over the country's refusal to acknowledge atrocities committed during World War II. In addition, the European Union (UN) has maintained an arms embargo on China following the Chinese government's response to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, in which many civilians were killed or injured.

In 2004, China proposed a new East Asian Summit (EAS) framework that pointedly excludes the U.S.. This forum was created to deal with regional security issues, and includes the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), as well as India, Australia and New Zealand. In 2011, the sixth EAS expanded to include the U.S. and Russia. China also maintains membership in numerous international organizations, many of which are regional and economic in nature, such as the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). China is also a member of the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). China's trade influence has also increased in recent years; for example, as of 2011, it is the second largest trading partner to Africa behind the U.S. Though African leaders have praised China for investing in the continent's infrastructure, human rights and pro-democracy advocates have remained skeptical about the country's increasing influence, and its impact on ordinary African citizens.

China, along with Russia, has the distinction of bordering the most countries in the world. In the past, the PRC has had a number of international territorial disputes, including over islands in the East and South China Seas, and disputed borders with India, North Korea, and Tajikistan. A long-standing dispute with Russia ended when Russia transferred Yinlong Island and one-half of Heixiazi to China. Since the 1990s, however, it is believed that the PRC has maintained a policy of quiet diplomacy with its neighbors in order to ease concerns over China's growing military numbers and nuclear capabilities.

Tibet and Taiwan are the most immediate foreign issues confronting China. Tibet is under the administration of the PRC and is identified as an autonomous province. However, unlike other autonomous regions such as Hong Kong, Tibet has a vast majority of inhabitants who are of one ethnicity. Because of this, there is disagreement as to how autonomous Tibet actually is. Human rights organizations regularly accuse China of oppressing and persecuting the local population. The Tibetan Government in Exile, headed by the Dalai Lama, considers Tibet to be a distinct sovereign nation, and accuses China of illegitimate military occupation. However, that the Dalai Lama has stated that he would accept an autonomous status similar to Hong Kong.

Taiwan, or the Republic of China (ROP), is an island in East Asia currently claimed by the PRC. China has never actually controlled Taiwan or any of its territories. However, the PRC argues that it ruled Taiwan for four years, from 1945 to 1949, and claims it to be an illegitimate government. The political environment between the two countries is tense due to the possibility of military conflict in the event of actions taken by either country towards reunification or independence. (The PRC has established military outposts on the Fujian coast to use force to ensure reunification.) The U.S. has intervened by providing the ROP with military arms and supporting a quid pro quo basis between both Chinese states, further heightening tensions in an already uneasy relationship between China and the U.S.

Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China. Composed of peninsular territories and islands on the South China seacoast of China, Hong Kong is a vibrant metropolis in its own right. Though relatively small, Hong Kong boasts one of the world's most important business centers, and plays a pivotal role in business relations between Asia and the West.

In 1997, Britain returned sovereignty of Hong Kong to the Chinese government. Under an innovative “one country, two systems” approach, China has permitted Hong Kong to keep its capitalist economic system and local autonomy while taking control of its international affairs and national defense.

Like Hong Kong, Macau is not an independent nation, but a Special Administrative Region of China. Once a Portuguese territory, Macau is a tiny set of two islands (Taipa and Coloane), and one peninsula (Macau), all interconnected by bridges. Lying on the coast of China's Canton Province, Macau is about 60 kilometers (37 miles) west of Hong Kong. In 1999, Portugal transferred possession of the tiny islands to the Chinese government after more than 400 years of Portuguese rule.

Dependencies

The political status of the island of Taiwan as the Republic of China (ROC) remains a topic of heated political and cultural debate in China. The Kuomintang of China (KMT), which yields significant political influence in Taiwan, is a national party that supports continued unification of the island with China; they assumed office in Taiwan in 2009. However, the Democratic Progressive Party, which is proponent of an independent Taiwan, also has a significant presence on the island.

Human Rights Profile

The 2015 report for China by Human Rights Watch stated that while the country had undertaken positive steps in certain areas, such as abolishing the arbitrary detention system known as Re-education through Labor (RTL), and making social reforms for migrants and persons with disabilities, open hostility towards human rights activists still is rampant.

International human rights law insists that states respect civil and political rights, and promote an individual's economic, social, and cultural rights. The United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights is recognized as the standard for international human rights. Its authors sought the counsel of the world's great thinkers, philosophers, and religious leaders, and were careful to create a document that reflects the core values shared by every world culture. (To read this document or view the articles relating to cultural human rights, visit http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/.)

China's constitution is written in language that declares that all citizens are declared equal before the law regardless of race, religion, or gender, as stated in Article 2 of the UDHR. The constitution, as it is written, also supports the basic human rights of freedom of speech and press. However, China's constitution also contains broad language that states citizens must defend the “security, honor, and interests of the motherland.” This single statement allows the Chinese government to limit or restrict these human rights if they deem the activities of Chinese citizens as endangering or threatening the country.

For these reasons, China is ranked 175th out of 180 countries in the Reporters Without Borders 2014 index of press freedom. The rights to freedom of speech and expression in China, as outlined in Article 19 of the UDHR, are subject to autocratic, unwarranted restrictions, censorship, and are bound by laws regarding media regulations that are full of vague language. These laws allow authorities to harass and imprison journalists by claiming their stories endanger the country by revealing classified state information.

The two main censoring agencies that review and enforce these laws are the General Administration of Press and Publication (GAPP) and the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television (SARFT). These agencies oversee information coming into, out of, and within China. The GAPP, which issues licenses, has the authority to shut down publishers and publications. SARFT has authority over television, film, radio and the Internet. The Communist Party's Central Propaganda Department (CPD), whose job it is to make sure that information agrees with and promotes the communist party doctrine, oversees both the GAPP and SARFT. The CPD instructs media outlets as to what content they are allowed to cover, and what content they are restricted from broadcasting—most notably, protests over issues surrounding Tibet and Taiwan.

Corruption and abuse of power by local officials within the legal system is common. In general, it is very difficult for Chinese commoners to obtain justice over issues involving the government, including forced evictions, corruption, wages, or illegal land seizures. Often, lawyers defending human rights cases have found themselves disbarred or unable to get their yearly licenses renewed. In addition, the rights of defendants are almost non-existent. For example, it is legal in China to detain “minor offenders” for up to four years without trial. There is also evidence that pretrial torture remains prevalent.

Article 18 of the UDHR outlines freedom of religion. The Chinese constitution recognizes the right to this freedom. However, it limits worship to churches, temples, mosques, and monasteries that are controlled by the government. These religious institutions must also be registered, the process of which typically takes an enormous amount of time and effort. Once registered, the religious organization must endure ongoing scrutiny of publications, personnel, financial records and membership lists. In addition, the government must first approve any group activities or outings of the religious organization.

The right to assemble, outlined in Article 20, is linked to freedom of speech in the Chinese constitution. However, like freedom of speech, the right is not supported in reality. Social activists, critics and protestors often have their movements restricted, or are detained under unofficial house arrest. Large-scale protests were reported in almost all of China's provinces in 2007, and several of these demonstrations involved tens of thousands of people. These protests were not disclosed to the general public or shown in Chinese media.

China's human rights record was brought to the forefront when Beijing served as the host for the 2008 Summer Olympics. Although China received international praise for its organization of the Olympic Games, the country was also routinely criticized for its handling of dissidents and human rights activists before, during, and after the Olympics. In particular, many protestors and activists were simply rounded up and detained in labor camps or deported. In addition, freedom of the press during Olympic coverage was often curtailed in China, most notably access to the Internet by foreign journalists. In addition, the Olympics also brought into question the rigorous training and expectations imposed upon China's athletes. In 2014, Beijing won the bid to host the 2022 Winter Olympics.

Migration

A significant number of Chinese people are moving from the country's rural regions to urban centers in search of employment, education, and an improved standard of living. By 2014, 274 million migrant workers arrived in China's cities. Migrant workers have helped fuel the engine of China's economy, which has seen unprecedented growth in recent years.

Overview of the Economy

China's is an economy on the move. In late 1978, the Chinese government began embracing a more market-oriented economic system. Since that time, the country's gross domestic product (GDP) has quadrupled.

In 2004, China overtook the U.S. as the world's largest consumer, besting the U.S. in consumption related to energy, food, industrial commodities such as steel, and consumer products such as cell phones and televisions. In 2010 China became the world's largest exporter and in 2014 surpassed the U.S. as the having the largest economy in the world, even though in per capita terms it remains below the world average.

In 2014, China's GDP was estimated at just over $10 trillion (USD). The per capita GDP was $12,900 (USD).

Industry

China's GDP is led by industry and services. Services account for more than 48 percent of China's GDP, followed by industry at 42 percent and agriculture at 9 percent. China is a manufacturing giant, accomplished not only in traditional skills such as textiles and metalworking, but also in complex engineering and assembly work supporting the automotive and aviation industries. Development of industry has been concentrated along the coast, from Hong Kong up to Shanghai.

China joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in late 2001, helping to increase its exports by 15 percent. Most exports go to the U.S. (17 percent) and Japan (6 percent). In 2010, China's exports exceeded $1.4 trillion (USD), and in 2014, it shipped goods valued at $2.3 trillion (USD). Top exports include heavy equipment, apparel, iron and steel, furniture, medical equipment, footwear and toys.

Labor

China's greatest resource lies in its people. Whereas countries that are more modern can easily outspend China in high technology, Chinese manufacturers can rely on labor rates that are one-fifth to one-tenth that of developed nations, thanks to the country's enormous population.

Energy/Power/Natural Resources

China is the world's leading coal producer. Most of the country's electric plants are coal-fired. Uranium is mined for use in China's nuclear power plants. The country's petroleum reserves kept up with demand until 1993, when industrial growth required imported oil.

Other important mineral deposits include graphite, iron ore, bauxite, manganese, molybdenum, mercury, and phosphates.

According to (World Health Organization) WHO standards, China has seven out of the ten most polluted cities in the world. The use of coal is slowing down in China as a broader use of hydroelectric power, solar and wind is being encouraged. Beijing plans to close all major coal power plants in the city in order to cut pollution. Cities in northern coal mining areas including Linfen, Yangquan, and Datong were the most polluted.

Fishing

Fish farms are common, often stocked with carp, and shellfish are an important catch along the coast.

Forestry

China's forests and grasslands have been dramatically reduced by farming and a voracious appetite for building materials. However, many remote, nearly inaccessible forested areas have helped protect a wide range of plant and animal diversity.

Mining/Metals

Important mineral deposits include graphite, iron ore, bauxite, manganese, molybdenum, mercury, and phosphates.

Agriculture

Roughly one-third of the country's labor force is engaged in agriculture. Rice is China's major crop, grown mainly in the south, followed by wheat in the northern plain regions. Other major crops include corn, soybeans, cotton, barley, potatoes, peanuts, apples, oranges, and tangerines. The country remains the world's top producer of green teas.

Animal Husbandry

The raising of livestock and poultry in China remains the smallest part of an otherwise massive agricultural economy. The country is the leading producer of swine, which is the largest livestock segment of the economy. Pork is a major Chinese export; the country produced over 720 million in 2014. Approximately 185 million sheep were raised in China in 2013. They are used as livestock and for milk and dairy production. China also leads the world in honey and silk production.

Tourism

The estimated number of visitors to China topped 100 million for the first time in 2004, accounting for more than $25 billion (USD) in revenue. The total represented a 20 percent increase over 2003, when tourism was dampened by fears over the SARS virus. The number of international tourists declined slightly overall from 2007 through 2014 due to a number of factors. Most tourists come from China's major trade partners, along with Russia and surrounding countries such the Philippines, Malaysia, and Singapore. Domestic tourism has gained momentum due to the improvement in Chinese living standards.

Beijing is the top destination due to the Forbidden City, Summer Palace, Beijing Zoo, and its many hotels and restaurants. Just over 70 kilometers (40 miles) to the northwest, at Badaling, stands the Great Wall of China. Often referred to as one of the Seven Wonders of the World, it measures 6,000 kilometers (4,000 miles) long and is an average 8 meters (25 feet) high. Also near Beijing are the Ming Tombs, holding the remains of thirteen Chinese emperors.

Another major tourist attraction, only discovered in 1974, is the 2,200–year-old Tomb of the Terracotta Warriors in Xi'an. These 7,000 life-size clay soldiers, complete with chariots, horses and weapons, were built to protect the burial site of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, a task assumed to be the life's work of approximately 700,000 laborers.

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