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Critical Survey of Mythology & Folklore: Legendary Creatures

THE STORIES, MYTHS, AND CREATURES OF EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA

by Tina Dienes, Judy A. Johnson, Kalen Churcher, Jocelyn Hutchinson, Laura Nicosia, James F. Nicosia

African mythology does not constitute a singular narrative or a cohesive corpus of folklore, but represents a diverse array of narratives originating from the various ethnic groups inhabiting the region. These narratives manifest in multiple forms, such as allegories, songs, epic poetry, and oral traditions.

Prior to European colonization, mythology held a central place in African societies, functioning as a crucial vehicle for transmitting historical accounts, religious doctrines, and cultural values. It also served to instill ethical principles and stimulate philosophical reflection. Folktales, in particular, were instrumental in educating the young and reinforcing moral standards among adults. These narratives frequently provided explanatory frameworks for natural phenomena, including the creation of the earth and humankind, often delivered through engaging oral performances, humor, and poetic forms. In African societies, traditional beliefs permeated nearly every facet of life, integrating spirituality and cultural identity into the rhythms of daily existence.

At the heart of Africa’s wide-ranging and diverse traditions are the mythological figures that explain creation, the role of spirits, the importance of ancestors, and the interaction between humans and the divine. The mythological figures of the Zulu and Bantu peoples underscores the rich complexity of mythology from the Southern nations of Africa, as well as the roles these figures play in shaping cultural and spiritual beliefs.

A group of people in 2010 attending an annual Zulu Reed Dance Ceremony, which thousands of people travel from great distances to attend every year.

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Photo by Retlaw Snellac Photography, CC BY 2.0, via Wikipedia.

ZULU MYTHOLOGY: UNKULUNKULU AND THE QUEEN OF HEAVEN

The Zulu people of southern Africa maintain a deeply spiritual worldview centered on the belief in a supreme god called Unkulunkulu, meaning “The Great Oldest One.” According to Zulu mythology, Unkulunkulu is the creator of everything in the universe, including the first humans, whom he brought forth from reeds. As the ultimate authority, Unkulunkulu resides in the heavens but is also intimately connected with earthly matters, such as the success of crops, the coming of rain, and the well-being of the Zulu nation.

Another key figure in Zulu mythology is the Queen of Heaven, a virgin goddess who taught women the arts of agriculture and other practical skills. She is a figure of purity, light, and beauty, associated with rain, mist, and rainbows. Her presence in Zulu mythology underscores the importance of femininity and fertility, both of which are seen as vital to the well-being of the community. The Queen of Heaven’s teachings represent the nurturing aspect of the divine, which complements the more authoritative role of Unkulunkulu.

Zulu cosmology also incorporates ancestor veneration, with the belief that the spirits of the dead continue to influence the living. The ancestors are invoked for their guidance and protection, especially during times of crisis such as famine or drought. Rituals aimed at appeasing these spirits, often led by the king, reinforce the close relationship between the earthly and spiritual realms in Zulu culture.

BANTU MYTHOLOGY: MULUNGU AND THE ROLE OF ANCESTORS

The Bantu peoples, spread across much of sub-Saharan Africa, share many common mythological figures and beliefs, despite the vast geographical distances between them. Among the Bantu, the supreme god is often referred to as Mulungu or Leza, depending on the region. In Bantu mythology, Mulungu is seen as a distant, creator god who, like Unkulunkulu in Zulu tradition, set the world in motion but remains relatively uninvolved in its day-to-day affairs. However, the spirits of ancestors, often referred to as ghosts or shades, are believed to be actively engaged in human affairs. These spirits frequently take on animal forms or appear to people in dreams, providing guidance or warnings.

A shaman of the Shona people (1989) near Zimbabwe.

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Photo by Hans Hillewaert, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikipedia.

A recurring theme in Bantu mythology is the interaction between the living and the spirit world, which is often believed to exist beneath the earth’s surface. In many Bantu traditions, death is not considered a final end but rather a transition into a parallel world. For example, the Anyanja people of Malawi believe that the first humans emerged from a hole in the ground near Lake Nyasa, signifying the deep connection between the earth, the underworld, and humanity. This belief is echoed in myths across Bantu-speaking cultures, where holes in the ground or burrowing animals often serve as gateways between the living and the dead.

The Bantu also have complex beliefs regarding death itself, encapsulated in a myth where the supreme god sent both a chameleon and a lizard to deliver contradictory messages to humanity. The chameleon was tasked with announcing eternal life, while the lizard proclaimed death. Due to the chameleon’s slowness, the lizard’s message was received first, and death became a part of human existence. This story illustrates the seemingly arbitrary nature of mortality in Bantu thought, where life and death are often seen as intertwined and subject to the whims of the gods.

African myths and traditional religious beliefs are not only about gods and the cosmos but also reflect the daily realities and challenges of life. Through rituals, storytelling, and spiritual practices, African peoples maintain a delicate balance between the mortal world and the ever-present influence of the spiritual forces around them.

ETHIOPIA

Folktales are among the earliest forms of Ethiopian literature, initially shared orally and later preserved in writing. These tales often feature animals and mythical creatures like the weret-hyena, an Ethiopian shape-shifting being, and the warka tree, a sacred and sentient tree believed to hold divine powers. These stories, infused with the vibrant characters of Ethiopian mythology, continue to adapt, with modern elements occasionally integrated into ancient narratives, reflecting the evolving nature of storytelling.

Animal stories are a common theme, alongside creation myths, inheritance stories, moral tales, and accounts of mythical creatures. In particular, the presence of heroic figures like Arwe, a dragon said to have terrorized ancient Ethiopia, illustrates the deep-rooted connection between Ethiopian literature and its mythological past. Despite concerns that modern technology might overshadow these tales, the enduring presence of Ethiopian mythology in literature suggests a lasting legacy.

Five varieties of Oromo dress and hairstyle: (back row left to right) Harar, Kamise, Borena, Shewa, and (young girl in front center) Guji.

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Photo (2015) by Mekonnen B. Gedefa, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikipedia.

Classic Ethiopian literature includes religious and historical works, often translated from other cultures. This category also encompasses philosophical texts that blend moral teachings with elements of Ethiopian mythology, creating unique interpretations of classic works. For example, The Fisalgos, derived from the Greek Physiologos, uses animals and plants to convey moral lessons, adding an Ethiopian twist that highlights the cultural significance of the nation’s natural and supernatural world.

Heroic literature, including praise poetry, plays a crucial role in Ethiopian and broader African literature. These works often employ metaphors that blur the line between reality and fantasy, with animals and mythical creatures symbolizing real-life concepts. Heroic epics, such as the Kebra Nagast (The Glory of Kings), blend historical fact with myth, recounting the tale of Queen Makeda (the Queen of Sheba) and her legendary encounter with King Solomon. This epic not only narrates the birth of their son, Menelik, but also incorporates the rich mythology that characterizes Ethiopian literature, making it a unique and deeply Ethiopian narrative.

The Oromo people are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, where they number about 30 million, or half the population. Their original homeland is called Oromia and includes most of present-day Ethiopia as well as northern Kenya. During the early twentieth century, they lost their political power to the government of Abyssinia, which resulted in political, economic, and social oppression. For nearly four hundred years, the Oromo people suffered under various Ethiopian powers yet managed to preserve much of their cultural identity. As such, the Oromo people never abandoned their culture in favor of Abyssinian culture.

The Oromo people have a tradition of folklore and believe that Waaqa Tokkicha (the one God) created the world, heaven, and all living and nonliving things. They call this god Waaqa Guuracha, which means “The Black God.” According to the Oromo creation myth, Waaqa created the sky, earth, dry land, and a star (to provide light) from water. The star, known as bakkalcha, gave rise to a spiritual connection and sunlight. Waaqa used the light from this star to create all other stars, animals, and plants. The Oromo people also believe in the existence of spirits whom they join when they die. Some Oromo people believe their ancestors have spirits and try to contact them through ceremony. An ancestor’s spirit may appear in the form of a flying animal.

The Oromo people have several rites of passage. Birth is celebrated because a child will one day grow to be a worker and as such is important. Because of the value the Oromos place on children, families tend to be large. Marriage is also an important day because it marks the time when boys and girls officially enter adulthood. Death is another significant event that brings the community together to say goodbye to the deceased.

Further Reading

1 

“African Traditional Religion.” South African History Online, sahistory.org.za/article/african-traditional-religion.

2 

“Nov 2, 1930 CE: Haile Selassie Becomes Emperor of Ethiopia.” National Geographic Society, 20 May 2022, education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/haile-selassie-becomes-emperor-ethiopia.

3 

Barnes, Trevor. The Kingfisher Book of Religions. Kingfisher, 1999.

4 

Cartwright, Mark. “Bantu Migration.” World History Encyclopedia, 11 Apr. 2019, worldhistory.org/Bantu_Migration.

5 

Dawson, Allan Charles, editor. Shrines in Africa: History, Politics, and Society. U of Calgary P, 2009.

6 

Diamant, Jeff. “Ethiopia Is an Outlier in the Orthodox Christian World.” Fact Tank: News in the Numbers, Pew Research Center, 28 Nov. 2017, pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/28/ethiopia-is-an-outlier-in-the-orthodox-christian-world.

7 

Erena, Beekan. “Oromo People.” OpenScholar@Harvard, scholar.harvard.edu/erena/oromo.

8 

“Ethiopia.” CIA World Factbook, 16 Nov. 2022,www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia.

9 

“Facts about the Oromo of East Africa.” University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center, 26 May 1995, www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Oromo.html.

10 

Friedenthal, Lora, and Dorothy Kavanaugh. Religions of Africa. Mason Crest, 2007.

11 

“The Global Religious Landscape: Folk Religionists.” Pew Research Center, 18 Dec. 2012.

12 

Hayes, Stephen. “Orthodox Ecclesiology in Africa: A Study of the Ethiopian Churches of South Africa.” International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church, vol. 8, no. 4, 2008, pp. 337–54.

13 

“The Kebra Nagast (Ethiopia, c. 1300s).” LibreTexts, 3 Mar. 2022, human.libretexts.org/Courses/The_Westminster_Schools/The_Kebra_Nagast_(Ethiopia_c._1300s)#:~:text=The%20Kebra%20Nagast%2C%20often%20known,sacred%20dynasty%22%20anointed%20by%20God.

14 

Kiros, Teodros. “Ethiopian Literature.” The Cambridge History of African and Caribbean Literature, vol. 1, edited by F. Abiola Irele and Simon Gikandi, Cambridge UP, 2000.

15 

Knappert, Jan. Bantu Myths and Other Tales. Brill, 1977.

16 

Lugira, Aloysius M. African Religion. Facts On File, 2004.

17 

“Mali.” CIA World Factbook, 6 Apr. 2022, cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mali/#people-and-society.

18 

Mbiti, John S. African Religions and Philosophy. 2nd ed., Heinemann, 1991.

19 

Monteiro-Ferreira, Ana Maria. “Reevaluating Zulu Religion.” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 35, no. 3, 2005, pp. 347–63.

20 

“Oromo.” EthnoMed, 2022, ethnomed.org/culture/oromo/#history-and-politics.

21 

“Oromo.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, minorityrights.org/minorities.oromo.

22 

“Oromos.” Countries and their Cultures, everyculture.com/wc/Costa-Rica-to-Georgia/Oromos.html.

23 

“Preserving the History of Ethiopia’s Oromo People.” Saint Joseph’s University, 21 Feb. 2020, sju.edu/news/preserving-history-ethiopias-oromo-people.

24 

Ray, Benjamin C. African Religions. 2nd ed., Prentice, 2000.

25 

Schlup, Murielle. “Emperor Haile Selassie, God of the Rastafarians.” Swiss National Museum, 2022, blog.nationalmuseum.ch/en/2022/01/emperor-haile-selassie-god-of-the-rastafarians.

26 

Temple, Robert K. G. The Sirius Mystery. St. Martin’s Press, 1976.

27 

Thomas, Douglas E. African Traditional Religion in the Modern World. McFarland, 2005.

28 

Van der Waal, K. “Defining the Term ‘Bantu.’” South African History Online, sahistory.org.za/article/defining-term-bantu.

29 

Werner, A. Myths and Legends of the Bantu. George G. Harrap & Company, 1933.

Citation Types

Type
Format
MLA 9th
Dienes, Tina, and Judy A. Johnson, and Kalen Churcher, and Jocelyn Hutchinson, and Laura Nicosia, and James F. Nicosia. "THE STORIES, MYTHS, AND CREATURES OF EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA." Critical Survey of Mythology & Folklore: Legendary Creatures, edited by Laura Nicosia & James F. Nicosia, Salem Press, 2025. Salem Online, online.salempress.com/articleDetails.do?articleName=CSMFCreatures_0018.
APA 7th
Dienes, T., & Johnson, J. A., & Churcher, K., & Hutchinson, J., & Nicosia, L., & Nicosia, J. F. (2025). THE STORIES, MYTHS, AND CREATURES OF EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA. In L. Nicosia & J. F. Nicosia (Eds.), Critical Survey of Mythology & Folklore: Legendary Creatures. Salem Press. online.salempress.com.
CMOS 17th
Dienes, Tina and Johnson, Judy A. and Churcher, Kalen and Hutchinson, Jocelyn and Nicosia, Laura and Nicosia, James F. "THE STORIES, MYTHS, AND CREATURES OF EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA." Edited by Laura Nicosia & James F. Nicosia. Critical Survey of Mythology & Folklore: Legendary Creatures. Hackensack: Salem Press, 2025. Accessed December 07, 2025. online.salempress.com.