The 1920s in America

Latinos

by Mauricio Espinoza-Quesada

Latinos played a significant role in the United States during the 1920s, with the country experiencing an increase in Latino immigration that would continue throughout the century. Through contributions to the agricultural and industrial sectors, as well as achievements in athletics and the arts, the Latino population significantly shaped the United States throughout the decade.

It was not until 1930 that the United States Census first counted a segment of the country’s Latino population, recording the presence of 1.4 million Mexicans. Therefore, no reliable or thorough information exists about the demographics of this group during the 1920s, although the 1930 census notes that an estimated 700,000 Mexicans had been classified as white in the census of 1920. What is known is that most Latinos living in the United States during the 1920s were Mexican Americans, many of whom lived in southwestern areas that had formerly been part of Mexico, or newly arrived Mexican immigrants. A smaller portion of this population was made up of Spanish-speaking Caribbean immigrants, particularly from Puerto Rico and Cuba, who began arriving in the United States in the aftermath of the 1898 Spanish-American War and subsequent U.S. interventions in the region. These newcomers would establish themselves not only in the traditional Latino strongholds of the Southwest, but also in the industrial centers and farming communities of the Midwest and the East Coast, expanding the distribution of Latino communities nationwide.

Immigration and Migration

Several factors contributed to the increased migration of Mexican nationals to the United States in the 1920s. The need for workers during World War I and the postwar years prompted the recruitment of immigrant labor for agriculture, mining, construction, railroad work, and manufacturing. The Immigration Act of 1917 barred citizens of most Asian countries from immigrating but did not place restrictions on Mexicans or other Latinos. With no head taxes or literacy restrictions in place, these immigrants quickly replaced Asians as the main source of cheap foreign labor, especially in the agricultural field. The more restrictive Immigration Act of 1924 further limited immigration from Asia and southern and eastern Europe, but it did not affect immigration from Latin America. In addition, violent political upheaval was prevalent in Mexico during the 1920s, pushing many to seek employment in the United States.

Because of geographic proximity, U.S. employers and authorities saw Mexicans as transient workers who would eventually return to Mexico and would not alter the American racial, cultural, or social character. However, many of these immigrants stayed in the United States permanently. Between 1920 and 1930, the combined number of Mexican Americans and Mexican-born individuals living in the United States increased to more than one million. A significant portion of this population lived in California by the end of the decade, but Mexicans also established important communities in cities such as Chicago, New York, and St. Louis. Despite this, the 1920s also posed obstacles to Latino migration at times. The recession of 1921 led to mass deportations, while the market crash of 1929 and the advent of stricter laws impeded further Mexican immigration.

Puerto Rican migration to the mainland United States during the 1920s was aided by the 1917 Jones-Shafroth Act, which granted U.S. citizenship to all Puerto Ricans. The restrictions placed on immigration from Asia and Europe increased the availability of jobs for Puerto Ricans and further drove migration to the mainland, where New York City became the nucleus of this community. Immigration from Cuba also increased in the 1920s as a result of political instability earlier in the century.

Labor and Civil Rights

Perceptions of Latinos as temporary workers often deprived them of legal, social, and political protections, leading to discriminatory practices based on the racial ideology of the time. Mexican agricultural workers seldom had access to medical care, and their living conditions were far below average. Wages were also lower, with Mexican workers receiving far less than Americans of European descent. Mexicans were also banned from joining most labor unions, as white union members feared these workers might take their jobs. The Ku Klux Klan vigorously persecuted Mexican American workers in the Southwest, and the Texas Rangers, who had fought Mexicans and Mexican Americans on numerous occasions in the previous decade, continued to harass these communities. The creation of the U.S. Border Patrol in 1924 exacerbated the hostile relations between immigrants and authorities.

In spite of low wages and transience, some Latinos succeeded in establishing homes and sending their children to school in the United States. However, access to education remained a major hurdle for both citizens and recent immigrants. In Texas, for example, 40 percent of school-aged Mexican Americans did not have access to education during the 1927–1928 school year. Other issues facing Latinos included the ability to participate in local, state, and federal politics. Would-be voters experienced disenfranchisement due to poll taxes and other methods similar to those used against African Americans. Interference by groups such as the White Man’s Primary Association, which worked to maintain white political dominance, further hindered Latino political participation.

To combat adversity and discrimination, Latinos formed mutualistas, or mutual aid societies, and established labor unions. The mutualistas played a key role in Latino communities, providing support to families during difficult times and often assuming the role of unions. One such mutualista developed into the Imperial Valley Workers Union in 1928 and carried out a strike that same year. Other important groups were the Orden Hijos de America, or the Order of Sons of America (OSA), founded in 1921, and the Confederación de Uniones Obreras Mexicanas (CUOM), or the Confederation of Mexican Labor Unions, founded in 1928. These organizations fought for such causes as wage parity, educational equality, and desegregation. The League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), which would become the largest Latino civil rights and advocacy group, was founded in 1929. Some Latino workers also managed to join preexisting unions such as the United Mine Workers of America (UMWA), which banned racial and ethnic discrimination in its constitution.

Arts and Popular Culture

A few Latinos achieved popularity in the media, arts, and popular culture of the 1920s. Light-skinned Latino actors such as Mexican-born Ramón Novarro, Dolores Del Río, Gilbert Roland, and Lupe Vélez achieved Hollywood prominence during the era, most often cast as passionate “Latin lover” types in silent films and early sound films. Latino athletes also began to break through during this time. Cuban-born chess player José Raúl Capablanca reigned as world champion from 1921 to 1927, competing in national and international tournaments. Cuba also produced successful baseball players during the decade, including pitcher Adolfo “Dolf” Luque, who played for the whites-only Cincinnati Reds throughout the decade. Meanwhile, fellow Cuban player Martín Dihigo excelled in the Negro Leagues, becoming one of the first Latino players inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame.

Impact

Throughout the 1920s, Latinos established a legacy of labor organization and political mobilization that would continue into the next century, producing influential leaders such as labor and civil rights activist César Chavez. The emerging presence of Latino artists and athletes during this time would also pave the way for the increased participation of Latinos in the arts and popular culture of the United States.

Further Reading

1 

De León, Arnoldo. Mexican Americans in Texas: A Brief History. 3d ed. Wheeling, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 2009. Provides a comprehensive view of the historical developments affecting one of the largest Latino populations in the United States.

2 

Guerin-Gonzales, Camille. Mexican Workers and American Dreams: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900–1939. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994. Recounts the history of Mexican workers in California and discusses participation in organized labor and the effects of immigration policies.

3 

Ochoa, George. Atlas of Hispanic-American History. New York: Facts on File, 2001. A concise yet informative history of Latinos in the United States since Spanish settlement.

4 

Sánchez, George J. Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900–1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Analyzes identity formation and the Americanization of Mexican Americans.

5 

Sánchez Korrol, Virginia. From Colonia to Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City, 1917–1948. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1983. Traces the origins and developments of Puerto Rican immigration to the East Coast, as well as settlement and cultural patterns.

Citation Types

Type
Format
MLA 9th
Espinoza-Quesada, Mauricio. "Latinos." The 1920s in America, edited by Carl Rollyson, Salem Press, 2012. Salem Online, online.salempress.com/articleDetails.do?articleName=1920_0367.
APA 7th
Espinoza-Quesada, M. (2012). Latinos. In C. Rollyson (Ed.), The 1920s in America. Salem Press. online.salempress.com.
CMOS 17th
Espinoza-Quesada, Mauricio. "Latinos." Edited by Carl Rollyson. The 1920s in America. Hackensack: Salem Press, 2012. Accessed December 14, 2025. online.salempress.com.